The Educational Odyssey of Alexander Hamilton
Alexander Hamilton's life is a testament to the power of self-improvement and the transformative effect of education. From humble beginnings in the British West Indies to becoming a key figure in the founding of the United States, Hamilton's journey was marked by a relentless pursuit of knowledge and a determination to rise above his circumstances. His early life, characterized by hardship and limited formal schooling, fueled his ambition and shaped his intellectual development. This article delves into the educational history of Alexander Hamilton, exploring the influences that shaped his intellect and the institutions that provided him with the tools to become one of America's most influential founding fathers.
Early Influences and Self-Education
Alexander Hamilton was born on January 11, 1757 (or perhaps 1755), in Charlestown on the island of Nevis, British West Indies. Born out of wedlock to James Hamilton, a Scottish trader, and Rachel Fawcett Lavien, his early life was far from privileged. His mother, Rachel, played a crucial role in his early education. Despite not attending the Anglican schools on the island, Hamilton received some home schooling.
Rachel Hamilton ensured that her sons, Alexander and James Jr., had access to books, fostering a love for reading. She taught Alexander French and encouraged him to explore a wide range of subjects. The small library of 34 books that the family owned included classics such as Alexander Pope’s poems, Plutarch’s Lives, and Machiavelli’s "The Prince." It’s unclear what kind of education Rachel Hamilton had, but she made sure her sons read Machiavelli and Plutarch, along with some poetry and sermons.
When his father abandoned the family, Hamilton began working at 11, becoming an accounting clerk in St. Croix. Young Alexander was taken in by a merchant named Thomas Stevens. Hamilton became best friends with Stevens’ son Edward. He also got a chance to use his natural curiosity by doing interesting work. The firm Beekman and Cruger supplied whatever the sugar planters needed. Hamilton always viewed his apprenticeship there as the most useful part of his education. This experience provided him with practical knowledge of commerce and trade, which would later prove invaluable in his role as the first Secretary of the Treasury. He closely observed the intricacies of the business world, learning about trading ships, fluctuating markets, and the importance of financial acumen. Historians say this first-hand education is what led to Hamilton’s business-savvy nature as an adult. His time spent working on the docks which put Hamilton in contact with many people. This led to friendships that gave him a “…direct link…” to many businessmen in the North American colonies, and eventually, (Chernow, 2004), to his future home in New York.
Despite his interest in business, Hamilton wanted to move up in society. He hoped to go to college like his friend Edward Stevens who was studying in New York. In a letter to his friend, Hamilton wrote, “my ambition is so prevalent that I…would willingly risk my life, tho’ not my character, to exalt my station.”
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Formal Education and Revolutionary Zeal
Hamilton's opportunity for formal education arose from his exceptional writing skills. In 1772, he wrote a detailed letter to his father regarding a hurricane that devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. Hamilton’s writing was so extravagant, the newspaper published the letter. Hamilton’s letter impressed the paper’s readers so much that a “…subscription fund…” (Chernow, 2005) was taken up by the governor of the island to send Hamilton to America to be formally educated.
In October 1772, Hamilton arrived by ship in Boston and then proceeded to New York City, where he boarded with Hercules Mulligan, the Irish-born brother of a trader known to Hamilton's benefactors. Mulligan assisted Hamilton in selling the cargo that Hamilton was to use to pay for his education and support. Hamilton sought to fill gaps in his education in preparation for college, and later that year began to attend Elizabethtown Academy, a preparatory school run by Francis Barber in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Though Hamilton was naturally intelligent, his lack of formal schooling meant that he needed to take some extra classes before applying to college. He studied Latin, Greek, and advanced math at Elizabethtown Academy (near Princeton). During his time at Elizabethtown he was also exposed to and became friends with many important political figures from both sides of spectrum- those who supported England, as well as those who saw themselves as revolutionaries. It was during his time at Elizabethtown Academy that Hamilton met Aaron Burr for the first time, who as history would tell, would lead to Hamilton’s eventual demise.
After completing those classes, he applied to Princeton. The school, however, wouldn’t let him take as many courses as he wanted. Hamilton attended King’s College in New York in 1773. Hamilton was in a hurry to catch up to other students who started college at a younger age than he did. Some speculate that he altered his birth year from 1755 to 1757 so he would seem closer in age to his fellow students.
Hamilton wanted to be admitted to a university on his own terms - to be allowed to enroll in any class for which he was qualified and to graduate as soon as he had completed the minimum requirements. After being denied admission at Princeton because of his unorthodox request, Hamilton was admitted to King’s College under the proposed arrangement and subsequently assigned a special tutor. At age 19, Hamilton was one of the oldest students admitted at a time when the average age of students was fifteen.
While in college, Hamilton and his friend Robert Troup formed a club. The club focused on writing and debating-skills that Hamilton later drew on during his political career. The club also helped Hamilton refine his political views. He wrote anti-British pamphlets that clashed with the views of his college professors. Later in 1774, Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury in New York published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause, seeking to provoke fear in the Thirteen Colonies, which he hoped would discourage them from uniting against the British. Hamilton countered anonymously with his first published political writings, A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress and The Farmer Refuted. He published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act, and may have also authored the 15 anonymous installments of "The Monitor" for Holt's New York Journal. During his time at King’s College, Hamilton’s eloquence and genius took a political application as debates became more poised toward independence. While a sophomore at the College, Hamilton delivered an impromptu speech that passionately outlined the case of the colonies against Parliamentary injustices.
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The Revolutionary War broke out before Hamilton graduated and he decided to join the forces on the battlefield, fighting alongside the Patriots. Thus began his military career, which included advising and assisting Gen. George Washington, as well as leading and participating in several battles, including the Battle of Yorktown. Hamilton drilled with the company before classes in the graveyard of nearby St. Paul's Chapel, studied military history and tactics on his own, and was soon elected an officer. Under fire from HMS Asia, and coordinating with Hercules Mulligan and the Sons of Liberty, he led his newly renamed unit, the "Hearts of Oak," on a successful raid for British cannons in the Battery. Through his connections with influential New York patriots, including Alexander McDougall and John Jay, Hamilton was commissioned by the revolutionary government to raise the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of 60 men in 1776, and was then appointed captain.
Legal Career and Political Acumen
After his military service, Hamilton returned to New York where he passed the bar exam to practice law. Following the Revolutionary War, the New York Legislature enacted a provision reducing the legal education requirements for veterans who had abandoned their legal studies to fight for their country. Hamilton obtained a dispensation based upon his studies at Columbia. He passed the bar in July after six months of self-directed education and, in October, was licensed to argue cases before the Supreme Court of New York. He left his post as adviser to study law and eventually established his own practice in New York. He became a well-known and sought-after lawyer in New York, and his involvement in politics made him a trusted political adviser.
When the British army evacuated New York City, Alexander Hamilton moved there and opened a law office on Wall Street. He was recognized as an outstanding practitioner, and argued many cases before the New York Supreme Court of Judicature and the Supreme Court of the United States. He was counsel for the defense in the murder trial of People v. Levi Weeks, and in Rutgers v. It was while he was in Albany arguing for the defendant in the criminal libel case of People v. Croswell that Alexander Hamilton attended a dinner party at the home of Judge Taylor and remarked that Mr. Aaron Burr was a dangerous man and ought not to be trusted with the reins of Government. Another guest wrote letters repeating the remarks, and the letters were published in the Albany Register. The long-standing bitterness between Hamilton and Burr escalated until, on July 11, 1804, Burr and Hamilton fought a duel in Weehawken, New Jersey.
Defending a British loyalist in 1784, he helped establish the principle that courts have the right and responsibility to interpret law. In 1782, Hamilton was appointed to the Congress of the Confederation as a representative from New York and later served as an assemblyman in the New York State Legislator. In 1787, as a member of Congress, Hamilton attended the Constitutional Convention at Independence Hall in Philadelphia. Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay later wrote a series of 85 essays known as the Federalist Papers.
Hamilton's legal expertise and political insight were instrumental in shaping the new nation. As the first Secretary of the Treasury (1789-95), Hamilton devised plans for funding the national debt, securing federal credit, encouraging expansion of manufacturing, and organizing the federal bank. He envisioned a central government led by an energetic executive, a strong national defense, and a more diversified economy with significantly expanded industry.
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In 1790, in his Report on Public Credit, Hamilton urged that the federal government assume the Revolutionary War debts of the 13 states. Nevertheless, he needed support for his economic plan in Congress. At the time, Thomas Jefferson and others wanted the national capital further south. They struck a deal: Hamilton’s economic plan passed, and Washington, D.C. ultimately became the permanent capital. As an integral member of Washington's cabinet, Hamilton also developed the concept of "implied powers," which allowed the federal government to do things in support of the Constitution, that were not specifically spelled out in it. Hamilton made this argument to Washington when he sought to justify the chartering of a national bank.
From his time as a clerk in the West Indies, Hamilton realized the negative impact smugglers had on the economy. In 1790, Congress authorized the proposal of Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton to build ten cutters to enforce tariffs and protect the nation’s revenue. Hamilton also envisioned manufacturers playing a major role in the economy of the United States. At the request of Congress, he wrote the Report on Manufactures. In the report, he argued for the creation of subsidies and tariffs to promote industrial growth. He supported an organization called the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufacturing (S.U.M). In supporting this organization, Hamilton planned to stimulate the nation’s economic system through mass manufacturing. In 1792, S.U.M purchased 700 acres of land surrounding Great Falls and established the city of Paterson, New Jersey (named after the New Jersey Governor William Paterson). The governor was a supporter of Hamilton's plans and he signed S.U.M.'s charter in November of 1791.
Columbia College and Legacy
During the same years, Hamilton was a member of the Board of Trustees of the newly renamed Columbia College. King’s College had dissolved and the buildings were used for military purposes during the Revolutionary War. Beginning in November 1784, Hamilton served on several committees on Columbia's Board of Trustees that crafted a detailed outline of the new academic departments and faculty appointments. He assisted in analyzing Columbia College finances and budget allocations.
After resigning as the nation's secretary of the treasury in 1795, Hamilton resumed his legal and business activities and helped lead the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade.
Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson. In the Quasi-War, fought at sea between 1798 and 1800, Hamilton called for mobilization against France, and President John Adams appointed him major general. Army, however, did not see combat in the conflict. Outraged by Adams' response to the crisis, Hamilton opposed his 1800 presidential re-election. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college and, despite philosophical differences, Hamilton endorsed Jefferson over Burr, whom he found unprincipled. When Burr ran for Governor of New York in 1804, Hamilton again opposed his candidacy, arguing that he was unfit for the office.
Taking offense, Burr challenged Hamilton to a pistol duel, which took place in Weehawken, New Jersey, on July 11, 1804. Hamilton was mortally wounded and immediately transported back across the Hudson River in a delirious state to the home of William Bayard Jr. in Greenwich Village, New York, for medical attention.
Scholars generally regard Hamilton as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician, and financier who was sometimes impetuous. His ideas are credited with influencing the founding principles of American finance and government.
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