The Evolution of Compulsory Education: From Satan to Standardization

Compulsory education, a cornerstone of modern society, ensures that all children receive a basic level of schooling. This article explores the historical development of compulsory education, tracing its roots from religious motivations to the complex, standardized systems in place today.

The Puritan Origins: Education as a Defense Against the Devil

The earliest seeds of compulsory education in America were sown in the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 17th century. Driven by a fervent religious devotion and a deep-seated fear of Satan, the Puritans believed that education was essential to prevent the devil from leading people astray.

The "Old Deluder Satan Act"

In 1642, the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a law requiring every household head to be responsible for the education of all of their children and dependents (servants). The law required that everyone be taught to read, and if a parent failed, their child could be removed from their home. However, the landmark legislation known as the Old Deluder Satan Act of 1647 truly established the principle of compulsory education. This law, whose very name invoked the image of Satan as a "chief project" to keep men from reading the Bible, mandated that towns establish schools to ensure children could read and understand scripture. The Puritans believed that literacy was crucial to resist Satan's influence and interpret the Bible without relying on potentially deceptive intermediaries.

Provisions of the Act

The Old Deluder Satan Act stipulated that townships with 50 or more households had to hire a schoolmaster to teach children to write and read at a "petty" or elementary school. Towns with 100 or more households were required to establish both a petty school and a full grammar school, preparing students for university. Today, the Old Deluder Satan Act is thought of as the nation’s first compulsory education law. It remained on the books until 1789, a year after Massachusetts became a state, when it was incorporated into the Massachusetts Education Act. By then, however, mention of Satan was nowhere to be found.

The 19th Century: Expanding and Standardizing Education

While the Old Deluder Satan Act laid the groundwork, it took over a century for the American public school system to truly take hold. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, most schools in the United States did not mandate regular attendance. The 19th century witnessed a gradual expansion and standardization of education across the nation, driven by factors such as industrialization, immigration, and a growing belief in the importance of civic engagement.

Read also: Compulsory Education: Key Aspects

The Role of Horace Mann and Massachusetts

New England encouraged its towns to support free public schools funded by taxation. In the early 19th century, Massachusetts took the lead in education reform and public education with programs designed by Horace Mann that were widely emulated across the North. Teachers were specially trained in normal schools and taught the three Rs (reading, writing, and arithmetic) and also history and geography.

Compulsory Attendance Laws

States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 (Massachusetts) and 1917 (Mississippi). By state law, education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and nineteen, depending on the state. This requirement can be satisfied in public or state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program.

The Morrill Land-Grant Acts

The federal government also played a role in promoting education through initiatives like the Morrill Land-Grant Acts of 1862 and 1890. These acts provided federal funding to establish land-grant colleges specializing in agriculture and engineering.

Challenges and Disparities

Despite these advancements, significant disparities persisted. The South lagged behind the North in educational standards, particularly for African American students in segregated schools. By 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. Northern philanthropy and northern churches provided assistance to private black colleges across the South. Religious denominations across the country set up their private colleges.

The Rise of Parochial Schools

In the mid-19th century, the rapidly increasing Catholic population led to the formation of parochial schools in the largest cities. Theologically oriented Episcopalian, Lutheran, and Jewish bodies on a smaller scale set up their own parochial schools. There were debates over whether tax money could be used to support them, with the answer typically being no. From about 1876, thirty-nine states passed a constitutional amendment to their state constitutions, called Blaine Amendment after James G. Blaine.

Read also: Understanding Compulsory Education

The 20th and 21st Centuries: Federal Involvement and Ongoing Reform

The 20th and 21st centuries have seen increasing federal involvement in education, alongside ongoing efforts to address inequities and improve student outcomes.

Federal Legislation and Initiatives

During Reconstruction, the United States Office of Education was created in an attempt to standardize educational reform across the country. At the outset, the goals of the Office were to track statistical data on schools and provide insight into the educational outcomes of schools in each state. While supportive of educational improvement, the office lacked the power to enforce policies in any state.

Key federal legislation, such as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, have aimed to provide funding, set standards, and ensure equal access to education for all students.

The No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, passed by a bipartisan coalition in Congress, provided federal aid to the states in exchange for measures to penalize schools that were not meeting the goals as measured by standardized state exams in mathematics and language skills. This made standardized testing a requirement. This standardized testing would be utilized between grades 3 through 8 and test on mathematics and English proficiency.

Race to the Top

In terms of sponsoring innovation; however, then-President Obama and then-Education Secretary Arne Duncan pursued K-12 education reform through the Race to the Top grant program. With over $15 billion of grants at stake, 34 states quickly revised their education laws according to the proposals of advanced educational reformers. There were incentives for states to establish college and career-ready standards, which in practice meant adopting the Common Core State Standards Initiative that had been developed on a bipartisan basis by the National Governors Association, and the Council of Chief State School Officers. The criteria were not mandatory, they were incentives to improve opportunities to get a grant. Most states revised their laws accordingly, even though they realized it was unlikely they would win a highly competitive new grant.

Challenges and Current Trends

Despite these efforts, challenges remain. Socioeconomic disparities, achievement gaps, and concerns about standardized testing continue to be debated.

Impact of COVID-19

Some colleges and universities became vulnerable to permanent closure during the pandemic. Universities and colleges were refunding tuition monies to students while investing in online technology and tools, making it harder to invest into empty campuses. Schools are defined as being in low financial health if their combined revenue and unrestricted assets will no longer cover operating expenses in six years. Before COVID-19, 13 institutions were in danger of closing within 6 years in New England. With the presence of COVID-19, that number has increased to 25 institutions. In the United States, due to the financial impact caused by COVID-19, 110 more colleges and universities are now at risk of closing. This labels the total number of colleges and universities in peril due to pandemic to be 345 institutions. While prestigious colleges and universities have historically had financial cushion due to high levels of enrollment, private colleges at a low risk have dropped from 485 to 385. Federal COVID-19 relief has assisted students and universities.

Homeschooling

Each year on October 1, as part of Minnesota’s compulsory instruction requirements, nonpublic schools, including educators of both private and homeschool students, are responsible for reporting to the superintendent of the district in which the student resides. Evidence of compliance with one of the requirements specified in Minnesota Statutes, section 120A.22, subdivision 10. Parent Notification. If the superintendent does not receive this report, or it appears from the report that the student is receiving instruction in violation of Minnesota’s compulsory instruction requirements (Minn. Stat. Failure to list an instructor that complies with Minnesota Statutes, section 120A.22, subd. 10. Minnesota Department of Education (MDE) Notification. If the alleged violation(s) is not corrected within 15 days of the parent’s receipt of the District notification, the superintendent must request fact-finding and mediation services from MDE. Minn. Stat. § 120A.26, subd. In your notification to MDE, include your district and contact information, the names of the student(s) and the parent(s), and the contact information for the parent(s). List the alleged violations of Minnesota Statutes, section 120A.22 and/or Minnesota Statutes, section 120A.24 (see our example list above). Also include any additional relevant information, including a description of the notification made to the parent(s) prior to making your fact-finding and mediation request. Once your request is received, MDE may contact your office to gather additional information. If a formal letter is needed, we will send a letter to the parent(s), with a copy to your office, explaining that we are conducting fact-finding and mediation. County Attorney notification: If the alleged violations are not corrected through the fact-finding and mediation process, the superintendent must notify the county attorney of the alleged violations. Minn. Stat.

Performance

Also due to the pandemic, as of data from 2022, only 26% of 8th graders were considered proficient in mathematics. In 2007, Americans stood second only to Canadians in the percentage of 35 to 64-year-olds holding at least two-year degrees. Among 25 to 34-year-olds, the country stands tenth. In the 2013 OECD Survey of Adult Skills, 33 nations took part with adults ages 16 to 65, surveying skills such as: numeracy, literacy, and problem-solving. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) found that millennials-aged from teens to early 30s-scored low.

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