Critical Thinking and Education: A Comprehensive Exploration
Critical thinking is a vital skill in the 21st century, essential for navigating an increasingly complex world. It is a skill that is learnt and improved through practice and application. This article explores the definition of critical thinking, its significance in education, and strategies for fostering it in students.
Defining Critical Thinking
Definitions of critical thinking, its elements, and its associated activities fill the educational literature of the past forty years. The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th century. Critical thinking is a kind of thinking in which you question, analyse, interpret, evaluate and make a judgement about what you read, hear, say, or write. The term critical comes from the Greek word kritikos meaning “able to judge or discern”. In a seminal study on critical thinking and education in 1941, Edward Glaser defines critical thinking as follows: “The ability to think critically involves an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and some skill in applying those methods."
Basically, Beyer sees critical thinking as using criteria to judge the quality of something, from cooking to a conclusion of a research paper. Perhaps the simplest definition is offered by Beyer (1995) : "Critical thinking… means making reasoned judgments" (p. 8).
Critical thinking is essentially self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. When one thinks critically, it is done is a self-directed manner. There is an internalization of the issue at hand and a deep understanding of it in an objective fashion.
Key Elements of Critical Thinking
Paul and Scriven suggest that critical thinking is based on "universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness." It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions, implication and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of reference.
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Wade (1995) identifies eight characteristics of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, defining a problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. Dealing with ambiguity is also seen by Strohm & Baukus (1995) as an essential part of critical thinking, "Ambiguity and doubt serve a critical-thinking function and are a necessary and even a productive part of the process" (p. Another characteristic of critical thinking identified by many sources is metacognition. Metacognition is thinking about one's own thinking. More specifically, "metacognition is being aware of one's thinking as one performs specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what one is doing" (Jones & Ratcliff, 1993, p.
In the book, Critical Thinking, Beyer elaborately explains what he sees as essential aspects of critical thinking.
- Criteria: To think critically, must apply criteria. Need to have conditions that must be met for something to be judged as believable. Although the argument can be made that each subject area has different criteria, some standards apply to all subjects. "… an assertion must… be based on relevant, accurate facts; based on credible sources; precise; unbiased; free from logical fallacies; logically consistent; and strongly reasoned" (p.
- Argument: Is a statement or proposition with supporting evidence.
- Reasoning: The ability to infer a conclusion from one or multiple premises.
- Point of View: The way one views the world, which shapes one's construction of meaning.
- Procedures for Applying Criteria: Other types of thinking use a general procedure. Critical thinking makes use of many procedures.
Critical Thinking as Defined by the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987
A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, Summer 1987: Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference.
Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.
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Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of information and belief generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior. It is thus to be contrasted with: 1) the mere acquisition and retention of information alone, because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated; 2) the mere possession of a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the mere use of those skills ("as an exercise") without acceptance of their results.
Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one’s own, or one's groups’, vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically successful it might be. When grounded in fairmindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of a higher order intellectually, though subject to the charge of "idealism" by those habituated to its selfish use.
Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent on, among other things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking or with respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to such-and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor.
The Importance of Critical Thinking in Education
Critical thinking is a vital, yet often neglected, skill. As educators, we must teach our students those critical thinking skills and practice them ourselves to objectively analyze an onslaught of information.
Oliver & Utermohlen (1995) see students as too often being passive receptors of information. Through technology, the amount of information available today is massive. This information explosion is likely to continue in the future. Students need a guide to weed through the information and not just passively accept it. Students need to "develop and effectively apply critical thinking skills to their academic studies, to the complex problems that they will face, and to the critical choices that they will be forced to make as a result of the information explosion and other rapid technological changes" (Oliver & Utermohlen, p. As mentioned in the section, Characteristics of Critical Thinking , critical thinking involves questioning. It is important to teach students how to ask good questions, to think critically, in order to continue the advancement of the very fields we are teaching.
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Beyer sees the teaching of critical thinking as important to the very state of our nation. He argues that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs. The vital goal of education is to promote critical thinking in students, not making them reflect like a parrot. It’s really important to instil the ability of critical thinking in children through education. As far as 21st century learning is concerned, critical thinking is an important factor. Spoon-feeding system in education has changed for better.
Benefits of Critical Thinking for Students
- Enhanced Analytical Skills: Critical thinking occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, or synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve a problem, or reach a conclusion.
- Improved Problem-Solving Abilities: One of the by-products of critical thinking skills is the ability to analyse and look at problems in a creative and constructive method. Critical thinkers are invariably good problem solvers. A good critical thinker will be able to separate facts from opinions and fiction and examine the issue from all angles before making rational decisions towards solving a problem. They will also be able to produce bias free solutions to problems, a fact that is crucial to note in the employment arena.
- Boosted Creativity: Thinking critically boost creativity and enhance the way we use and manage our time and critical thinking not only describes the ability to think in accordance with the rules of logic and probability, but also the ability to apply these skills to real-life problems, which are not content-independent.
- Greater Self-Awareness: Critical thinking can provide you with a more insightful understanding of yourself. It will offer you an opportunity to be objective, less emotional, and more open-minded as you appreciate others’ views and opinions.
- Preparation for the Future: As universal challenges like global warming, pollution, pandemics, continue to plague the world, youngsters of today - who will become the leaders of tomorrow - will be expected to take the mantle of finding effective solutions. Critical thinking fosters allied life skills such as organisational skills, planning, open-mindedness, communication skills among others. Being a life skill by itself, critical thinking enables you to take on challenges in the personal and professional world with ease. It encourages confidence and independence, thereby shaping successful lives. As education takes different forms in a world hit by a pandemic, it is extremely crucial for students to possess skills like critical thinking, that will prepare them for tomorrow. After all, children of today are the leaders of tomorrow.
Strategies for Fostering Critical Thinking
The 1995, Volume 22, issue 1, of the journal, Teaching of Psychology , is devoted to the teaching critical thinking. The aim of Critical Thinking is to promote independent thinking, personal autonomy and reasoned judgment in thought and action. Critical thinking involves logic as well as creativity. It may involve inductive and deductive reasoning, analysis and problem-solving as well as creative, innovative and complex approaches to the resolution of issues and challenges.
- Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATS): Angelo stresses the use of ongoing classroom assessment as a way to monitor and facilitate students' critical thinking. An example of a CAT is to ask students to write a "Minute Paper" responding to questions such as "What was the most important thing you learned in today's class?
- Cooperative Learning Strategies: Cooper (1995) argues that putting students in group learning situations is the best way to foster critical thinking. "In properly structured cooperative learning environments, students perform more of the active, critical thinking with continuous support and feedback from other students and the teacher" (p.
- Case Study /Discussion Method: McDade (1995) describes this method as the teacher presenting a case (or story) to the class without a conclusion.
- Reciprocal Peer Questioning: Following lecture, the teacher displays a list of question stems (such as, "What are the strengths and weaknesses of…). Students must write questions about the lecture material. In small groups, the students ask each other the questions.
- Reader's Questions: Require students to write questions on assigned reading and turn them in at the beginning of class.
- Conference Style Learning: The teacher does not "teach" the class in the sense of lecturing. The teacher is a facilitator of a conference. Students must thoroughly read all required material before class. Assigned readings should be in the zone of proximal development. That is, readings should be able to be understood by students, but also challenging. The class consists of the students asking questions of each other and discussing these questions. The teacher does not remain passive, but rather, helps "direct and mold discussions by posing strategic questions and helping students build on each others' ideas" (Underwood & Wald, 1995, p.
- Use Writing Assignments: Wade sees the use of writing as fundamental to developing critical thinking skills. "With written assignments, an instructor can encourage the development of dialectic reasoning by requiring students to argue both [or more] sides of an issue" (p.
- Written dialogues: Give students written dialogues to analyze. In small groups, students must identify the different viewpoints of each participant in the dialogue. Must look for biases, presence or exclusion of important evidence, alternative interpretations, misstatement of facts, and errors in reasoning. Each group must decide which view is the most reasonable.
- Spontaneous Group Dialogue: One group of students are assigned roles to play in a discussion (such as leader, information giver, opinion seeker, and disagreer).
- Ambiguity: Strohm & Baukus advocate producing much ambiguity in the classroom. Don't give students clear cut material.
Addressing Misinformation and Bias
Courtney Brown and Sherrish Holland, of the Center for the Professional Education of Teachers, argue that for educators, the challenge is now far more about how they need to inform their students to interpret and assess the information they come across and not simply how to gain access to it. The term “fake news” is used to discredit anyone trying to clarify fact from fiction. Anyone in a teaching position should point their students toward reliable references. For example, at SNHU, instructors can send students to databases in the Shapiro Library.
Instructors can also incorporate these elements into announcements, discussion posts and feedback. For example, they can post two articles with differing viewpoints on the week’s material. For each, they can break down the publication’s possible slant, the way in which any research-based material is presented, and the author’s credentials. Even if you don’t teach, use those points in conversations to help others hone their critical thinking skills. If someone shares misinformation with you, don’t be combative. Inspire the other person to use critical thinking skills.
Here are some guiding questions to encourage critical evaluation of information:
- Is the premise legitimate or is it clickbait?
- Are the arguments in the article supported by evidence?
- Do the facts paint a reasonable picture, or are there contradictions?
- Is the article based on logic, or is it designed to draw in readers by misrepresenting its content?
- Is it hosted on a biased site, and do its authors have connections that could cause bias?
- Consider whether the person who wrote or is sharing the information has any vested interest in doing so. Be aware that the writer’s credibility can be affected by outside interests.
- Consider the venue in which the person is sharing the information. Newscasts and newspapers once were slanted more toward neutrality, although there was never an era when bias was completely absent. Today, it’s getting more difficult for those with critical thinking skills to find unbiased sources. Often, the information contained within the article is not accurately represented in the headline. Misinformation, if not addressed, easily turns into disinformation when it’s readily shared by students, individuals and groups that may know it’s wrong. They may continue to intentionally spread it to cast doubt or stir divisiveness.
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