Frances Perkins: Education, Career, and Legacy as a Champion of Workers' Rights
Frances Perkins, born Fannie Coralie Perkins in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1880, emerged as a pivotal figure in American history, leaving an indelible mark on labor laws and social reform. Her journey, rooted in a strong educational foundation and fueled by a deep commitment to social justice, propelled her to become the first woman to serve as a United States Cabinet member. As Secretary of Labor under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, she spearheaded the development and implementation of landmark policies that continue to shape the lives of American workers today.
Early Life and Education: Foundations of a Social Reformer
Perkins's roots were deeply embedded in New England. Her mother, Susan E. Bean, hailed from Bethel, Maine, while her father, Frederick Perkins, was born and raised in Newcastle, Maine, where his ancestors had settled in the 1750s. The family's connection to the land and their Yankee values of frugality, ingenuity, tenacity, and self-reliance instilled in young Fannie a strong sense of heritage and a belief in opportunity for all who were willing to work for it.
The Perkins household in Worcester was strict, conservative, and Republican. It was only when Fannie entered school that she encountered poverty, which prompted her to question the accepted explanations of the time.
Her formal education began at Classical High School in Worcester. In 1902, she graduated from Mount Holyoke College, the oldest continuing institution of higher education for women in the nation, with a bachelor's degree in chemistry and physics. Mount Holyoke instilled in Perkins the belief that with education came responsibility, giving her a sense of purpose that would fuel her lifelong fight for social reform. The school's founder, Mary Lyon, believed that education should fit one to do good, urging young women to "go where no one else will go, do what no one else will do."
It was in her final semester at Mount Holyoke that Perkins enrolled in an American economic history course taught by historian Annah May Soule, which would have a profound impact on her life. The course explored the growth of industrialism in England and America, exposing Perkins to the harsh realities faced by women and children working in factories. She was horrified by the lack of effective laws regulating working hours, safeguarding health, and providing compensation for injuries. This experience ignited a desire to reform these abuses and improve the lives of workers.
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After graduating from Mount Holyoke, Perkins defied her parents' expectations of settling down with a teaching position or church work until marriage. Instead, she sought employment in social work and, after facing initial setbacks, took a teaching position at Ferry Hall, an elite school for girls in Lake Forest, Illinois. Demonstrating her independence, she changed her name from Fannie to Frances and converted to the Episcopal faith.
Early Career and Influences: Shaping a Labor Advocate
While teaching in Chicago, Frances Perkins spent her free time volunteering at Chicago Commons and Hull House, two prominent settlement houses. Working alongside educated women, she offered social services to predominantly immigrant residents and witnessed firsthand the problems faced by factory workers. This experience solidified her commitment to fight for labor reform.
In 1907, Perkins accepted a position as general secretary of the Philadelphia Research and Protective Association, an organization dedicated to preventing the exploitation of newly arrived immigrant girls. She furthered her education by studying sociology and economics at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School.
Moving to New York in 1909, Perkins began a fellowship with the New York School of Philanthropy, investigating childhood malnutrition in Hell's Kitchen. She also enrolled at Columbia University, earning a master's degree in sociology and economics in 1910 with a thesis titled "A Study of Malnutrition in 107 Children from Public School 51."
In 1910, Perkins became Executive Secretary of the New York City Consumers League, working directly with Florence Kelley, whose speech at Mount Holyoke had inspired her career path. She focused on advocating for sanitary regulations for bakeries, fire protection for factories, and legislation to limit working hours for women and children.
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A pivotal moment in Perkins's career and in the history of labor reform occurred on March 25, 1911, when the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire claimed the lives of 146 workers. Perkins witnessed the horrific scene, where many workers, mostly young women, were trapped inside the locked factory and died from smoke inhalation, fire, or by jumping to their deaths. This tragedy galvanized her determination to improve working conditions for Americans. She later proclaimed that the fire was "the day the New Deal was born."
In response to the fire, Perkins served as the executive secretary for the Committee on Safety of the City of New York, formed at the suggestion of Theodore Roosevelt. She also served as an expert witness and investigator for the Factory Investigating Commission, leading legislators on inspections of factories and worksites to expose the dangers of unregulated industrialism. These efforts led to new laws that became models for other states and the federal government.
Public Service in New York: A Rising Star in Labor Relations
Frances Perkins's dedication to labor reform led her to public service in New York State. The gubernatorial election of 1918 marked the first time women in New York had the right to vote, and Perkins actively campaigned for Al Smith, her ally in Albany. After Smith's election as governor, he appointed her to a vacant seat on the New York State Industrial Commission, making her the first woman to hold an administrative position in New York state government and the highest-paid woman in public office in the United States.
As a member of the Industrial Commission, Perkins worked to enforce the laws brought about by the Factory Investigating Commission. She served as Smith's closest labor advisor, building on the legislative accomplishments of the previous decade.
In 1929, when Franklin D. Roosevelt became governor of New York, he appointed Perkins as the state's Industrial Commissioner, overseeing the entire labor department. She became a prominent state labor official, working with Roosevelt to address rising unemployment. Perkins challenged the Hoover Administration's optimistic predictions about the economy, presenting statistical evidence of growing unemployment in New York.
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Perkins collaborated with labor and industry representatives to explore long-range programs to increase employment. She organized a conference on unemployment for the northeastern industrial states and expanded the state's employment agencies. She also championed unemployment insurance, encouraging Roosevelt to become the first public official in the country to commit to such a program. In 1930, Roosevelt sent Perkins to England to study the British system.
Secretary of Labor: Architect of the New Deal
With the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as President in 1932, Frances Perkins's career reached its zenith. Roosevelt appointed her as Secretary of Labor in 1933, making her the first woman to serve in a presidential cabinet. In this role, Perkins took on the immense responsibility of developing solutions to the problems caused by the Great Depression.
Before accepting the position, Perkins presented Roosevelt with a list of labor programs she would fight for, including Social Security and minimum wage. Roosevelt agreed to back her, recognizing the significance of her vision.
As Secretary of Labor, Perkins oversaw the Department of Labor and played a central role in shaping the New Deal. She was a driving force behind the Social Security Act of 1935, which created a retirement program for workers, unemployment insurance, and mandated compensation for work-related accidents. Perkins also drafted the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, banning child labor and establishing a minimum wage and 40-hour work week.
Perkins's commitment to workers' rights extended to immigrants. She advocated for their rights and creatively administered existing quota regulations to aid refugees in need.
Despite facing criticism and challenges, Perkins remained steadfast in her commitment to improving the lives of American workers. She served as Secretary of Labor until June 30, 1945, the longest tenure in that position.
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