The Education Policy of George W. Bush: No Child Left Behind Act

President George W. Bush's administration focused significantly on reforming public education, with the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 as its centerpiece. Signed into law on January 8, 2002, NCLB aimed to reauthorize the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and expand its reach based on four key principles: accountability for results, state and local flexibility, focusing resources on successful methods, and expanding parental choice. This legislation, exceeding six hundred pages, represented a sweeping transformation of education policy and a major legislative achievement for President Bush.

Historical Context and Motivations

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965

The roots of NCLB can be traced back to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, enacted by President Lyndon B. Johnson as part of his "War on Poverty." ESEA aimed to provide additional resources to low-income students, but the nation repeatedly fell short of meeting the law's goal of providing full educational opportunities to students.

"A Nation at Risk" Report (1983)

Fears about the American education system intensified with the 1983 release of "A Nation at Risk," a report by President Ronald Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education. The report warned that America's economic security would be severely compromised without a reorientation of the education system and an increase in academic standards.

International Influences

The emphasis on educational standards and accountability also reflected international trends. After World War II, organizations like UNESCO, the World Bank, and the OECD focused on global educational development, increasingly emphasizing learning outcomes and evaluation against defined performance standards.

Political Developments

Despite historical Republican opposition to federal involvement in education, lobbying efforts, public opinion, and political developments led congressional Republicans to push for federal educational reforms emphasizing standardized testing and accountability measures.

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Key Components of NCLB

Stronger Accountability for Results

NCLB mandated standards-based education reform, premised on the idea that setting high standards and measurable goals could improve educational outcomes. The act required states to develop challenging academic standards applicable to all students and to assess whether those standards were met through regular student testing. States were required to bring all students to the "proficient level" on state tests by the 2013-2014 school year, though each state defined "proficiency" and chose its own tests. The act did not set national achievement standards.

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)

Schools were tracked toward their goals through "adequate yearly progress" (AYP). Schools failing to meet state achievement targets for two consecutive years, either for all students or a subgroup, were identified as not "making AYP" and faced sanctions.

Schools missing AYP for two years had to allow students to transfer to better-performing public schools within the district. Missing AYP for three years required offering free tutoring. Continued failure could lead to state intervention, including closure, conversion to a charter school, or a state takeover.

State and Local Flexibility

NCLB provided states and school districts with greater flexibility in using federal education funds. States and local education agencies (LEAs) could transfer up to 50% of federal funding from certain grant programs (Teacher Quality State Grants, Educational Technology, Innovative Programs, and Safe and Drug-Free Schools) to address specific needs. Up to seven states could consolidate federal grant funds for any educational purpose allowed under ESEA, provided they formed local performance agreements with LEAs.

Scientifically Based Research

The act mandated that schools rely on scientifically based research for programs and teaching methods. Federal funding was allocated to programs demonstrating effectiveness in improving educational achievement.

Parental Choice

NCLB aimed to increase parental choice in three situations:

Parents of children in low-performing schools failing to meet state standards for two years could transfer their children to better public or charter schools within the district, with the district responsible for transportation.
Children from low-income families attending schools failing to meet state standards for three years or more qualified for supplemental educational services, including tutoring, after-school assistance, and summer school.
Parents of children attending dangerous schools or who were victims of violent crime could transfer their children to safer schools within the district.

Teacher Qualifications

NCLB required states to ensure that all teachers were "highly qualified," generally meaning they had a bachelor's degree in their subject and state certification. New teachers hired with federal Title I money had to be highly qualified starting in 2002-2003, and all school paraprofessionals hired with Title I money had to meet certain educational requirements by the end of 2005-2006.

Mathematics and Science Partnerships (MSP)

Mathematics and Science Partnerships (MSP) aimed to increase student achievement in science and mathematics by partnering IHE science, math, and engineering departments with elementary and secondary science and math teachers in high-need local educational agencies (LEAs) in order to develop teachers' content knowledge and instructional performance.

Viewpoints and Effects of NCLB

Supporters' Claims

Supporters of NCLB emphasized the increased accountability required of schools and teachers. They argued that the yearly tests measuring student improvement helped teachers and schools realize the significance of the educational system. They also pointed to improved test scores, particularly among minority and low-income students, as evidence of the law's success. According to the 2007 Nation's Report Card, minority students, low-income students, and students with disabilities showed improvements in a number of areas, narrowing the achievement gap. In fourth-grade reading, the achievement gap between white and African-American students was at an all-time low. In math, fourth- and eighth-grade African-American students achieved their highest scores to date, and Hispanic students set new achievement records in fourth-grade reading and fourth- and eighth-grade math.

Criticisms and Challenges

Critics argued that NCLB overemphasized standardized testing, encouraging teachers to "teach to the test" rather than fostering in-depth understanding of the curriculum. They pointed out that outside influences often affect student performance, and basing performance on a single test inaccurately measures overall student success.

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Some critics also claimed that the focus on reading, writing, and mathematics led to neglecting other subjects like science, social studies, foreign language, and the arts. Additionally, NCLB did not require programs for gifted and talented students, and federal funding for gifted education decreased during the law's first five years.

The system of incentives and penalties created a motivation for schools to manipulate test results, such as through "creative reclassification" of high school dropouts. The goal of 100% of students reaching the same state standards by 2014 was seen as unattainable, with critics arguing that some students were simply unable to perform at the required level, regardless of teacher effectiveness.

Impact on Students with Disabilities and Limited English Proficiency (LEP)

While NCLB aimed to include students with disabilities and limited English proficiency (LEP) in assessments, concerns were raised about the appropriateness of "one size fits all" standards. Most students with mild disabilities or physical disabilities took the same tests as non-disabled students, with accommodations specified in their Individual Education Plans (IEPs). Schools could use alternate assessments to declare up to 1% of all students proficient for the purposes of the Act. Supporters of NCLB assessment of disabled or LEP students argued that inclusion ensured that deficiencies in their education were identified and addressed.

Funding Issues

Education advocates claimed that NCLB was underfunded. The original legislation called for major increases in education spending to meet its ambitious goals, but federal funding never reached the levels outlined in the law.

Efforts to Improve Implementation

President George W. Bush sought to improve NCLB implementation. In 2007, he released "Building on Results: A Blueprint for Strengthening the No Child Left Behind Act," proposing improvements to close the achievement gap, help turn around underperforming schools, and empower parents with better information and school choice options.

When Congress failed to reauthorize NCLB, Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings took administrative steps to strengthen the law, giving states flexibility to turn around schools in need of improvement.

NCLB Waivers

By 2010, it was clear that many schools would not meet NCLB's achievement targets. The Obama administration began offering states waivers from key mandates of the law in exchange for embracing certain education redesign priorities, such as setting standards aimed at preparing students for higher education and the workforce, putting in place assessments aligned to those standards, and instituting teacher-evaluation systems that considered student progress on state standardized tests.

Replacement with the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

In December 2015, Congress passed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) to replace NCLB. ESSA sought to reduce the federal role in K-12 education, giving states more control over accountability and intervention in schools.

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