Humanism's Profound Influence on the Growth of Learning

Humanism, a system of education and a mode of inquiry, emerged in northern Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries, subsequently spreading across continental Europe and England. Alternatively, the term is applied to diverse Western beliefs, methods, and philosophies that place central emphasis on the human realm.

Also known as Renaissance humanism, the historical program was so broadly and profoundly influential that it is one of the chief reasons why the Renaissance is viewed as a distinct historical period. Indeed, though the word Renaissance is of more recent coinage, the fundamental idea of that period as one of renewal and reawakening is humanistic in origin. But humanism sought its own philosophical bases in far earlier times and, moreover, continued to exert some of its power long after the end of the Renaissance.

Origin and Meaning of the Term Humanism

The history of the term humanism is complex but enlightening. It was first employed (as humanismus) by 19th-century German scholars to designate the Renaissance emphasis on Classical studies in education. These studies were pursued and endorsed by educators known, as early as the late 15th century, as umanisti-that is, professors or students of Classical literature. The word umanisti derives from the studia humanitatis, a course of Classical studies that, in the early 15th century, consisted of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy. The studia humanitatis were held to be the equivalent of the Greek paideia. Their name was itself based on the Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero’s concept of humanitas, an educational and political ideal that was the intellectual basis of the entire movement. Renaissance humanism in all its forms defined itself in its straining toward this ideal. No discussion of humanism, therefore, can have validity without an understanding of humanitas.

The Ideal of Humanitas

Humanitas meant the development of human virtue, in all its forms, to its fullest extent. The term thus implied not only such qualities as are associated with the modern word humanity-understanding, benevolence, compassion, mercy-but also such more assertive characteristics as fortitude, judgment, prudence, eloquence, and even love of honour. Consequently, the possessor of humanitas could not be merely a sedentary and isolated philosopher or man of letters but was of necessity a participant in active life. Just as action without insight was held to be aimless and barbaric, insight without action was rejected as barren and imperfect. Humanitas called for a fine balance of action and contemplation, a balance born not of compromise but of complementarity.

The goal of such fulfilled and balanced virtue was political, in the broadest sense of the word. The purview of Renaissance humanism included not only the education of the young but also the guidance of adults (including rulers) via philosophical poetry and strategic rhetoric. It included not only realistic social criticism but also utopian hypotheses, not only painstaking reassessments of history but also bold reshapings of the future. In short, humanism called for the comprehensive reform of culture, the transfiguration of what humanists termed the passive and ignorant society of the “dark” ages into a new order that would reflect and encourage the grandest human potentialities. Humanism had an evangelical dimension: it sought to project humanitas from the individual into the state at large.

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Classical Literature as the Wellspring

The wellspring of humanitas was Classical literature. Greek and Roman thought, available in a flood of rediscovered or newly translated manuscripts, provided humanism with much of its basic structure and method. For Renaissance humanists, there was nothing dated or outworn about the writings of Aristotle, Cicero, or Livy. Compared with the typical productions of medieval Christianity, these pagan works had a fresh, radical, almost avant-garde tonality. Indeed, recovering the classics was to humanism tantamount to recovering reality. Classical philosophy, rhetoric, and history were seen as models of proper method-efforts to come to terms, systematically and without preconceptions of any kind, with perceived experience.

Moreover, Classical thought considered ethics qua ethics, politics qua politics: it lacked the inhibiting dualism occasioned in medieval thought by the often-conflicting demands of secularism and Christian spirituality. Classical virtue, in examples of which the literature abounded, was not an abstract essence but a quality that could be tested in the forum or on the battlefield. Finally, Classical literature was rich in eloquence. In particular, humanists considered Cicero to be the pattern of refined and copious discourse, as well as the model of eloquence combined with wise statesmanship. In eloquence humanists found far more than an exclusively aesthetic quality. As an effective means of moving leaders or fellow citizens toward one political course or another, eloquence was akin to pure power. Humanists cultivated rhetoric, consequently, as the medium through which all other virtues could be communicated and fulfilled. Humanism, then, may be accurately defined as that Renaissance movement that had as its central focus the ideal of humanitas. The narrower definition of the Italian term umanisti notwithstanding, all the Renaissance writers who cultivated humanitas, and all their direct “descendants,” may be correctly termed humanists.

Other Uses of the Term "Humanism"

It is small wonder that a term as broadly allusive as humanism should be subject to a wide variety of applications. Accepting the notion that Renaissance humanism was simply a return to the Classics, some historians and philologists have reasoned that Classical revivals occurring anywhere in history should be called humanistic. St. Augustine, Alcuin, and the scholars of 12th-century Chartres have thus been referred to as humanists. In this sense the term can also be used self-consciously, as in the New Humanism movement in literary criticism led by Irving Babbitt and Paul Elmer More in the early 20th century.

The word humanities, which like the word umanisti derived from the Latin studia humanitatis, is often used to designate the nonscientific scholarly disciplines: language, literature, rhetoric, philosophy, art history, and so forth. Thus, it is customary to refer to scholars in these fields as humanists and to their activities as humanistic. Humanism and related terms are frequently applied to modern doctrines and techniques that are based on the centrality of human experience. In the 20th century the pragmatic humanism of Ferdinand C.S. Schiller, the Christian humanism of Jacques Maritain, and the movement known as secular humanism, though differing from each other significantly in content, all showed this anthropocentric emphasis. Not only is such a large assortment of definitions confusing, but the definitions themselves are often redundant or impertinent. There is no reason to call all Classical revivals “humanistic” when the word Classical suffices. To say that professors in the many disciplines known as the humanities are humanists is to compound vagueness with vagueness, for these disciplines have long since ceased to have or even aspire to a common rationale. The definition of humanism as anthropocentricity or human-centredness has a firmer claim to correctness. For obvious reasons, however, it is confusing to apply this word to Classical literature.

The Renaissance and the Rise of Humanism in Education

The Renaissance was a time of profound cultural, intellectual, and artistic renewal that brought sweeping changes to the way people thought about the world. One of the most significant developments during this period was in the field of education. The Renaissance saw the rise of Humanism, which emphasized the value of classical learning and the development of the individual. As a result, a new system of education emerged, focusing on the liberal arts and the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts.

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The Centrality of the Humanities

At the heart of Renaissance education was the intellectual movement known as Humanism. Humanism focused on the study of the humanities-literature, philosophy, history, and the arts-as a means of understanding human nature and achieving individual potential. Petrarch (1304-1374), often called the “Father of Humanism,” was one of the earliest figures to advocate for a return to the classical texts of antiquity. He believed that studying the works of great thinkers like Cicero, Plato, and Virgil would provide moral guidance and intellectual enrichment.

Humanism shifted the focus of education from the scholasticism of the medieval period, which was centered on theology and logic, to a broader curriculum that included history, rhetoric, poetry, and moral philosophy. The Renaissance model of education was based on the study of the liberal arts, which were considered essential for developing a free and enlightened individual. The traditional seven liberal arts were divided into two categories: the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium consisted of grammar, rhetoric, and logic-skills that were essential for effective communication and reasoning. During the Renaissance, the study of the trivium was particularly emphasized, as rhetoric and eloquence were considered crucial for public speaking, political participation, and intellectual debate. While the quadrivium continued to be part of the curriculum, the study of mathematics and science was increasingly influenced by the discoveries of the Scientific Revolution, which overlapped with the later stages of the Renaissance.

Revival of Classical Learning

The revival of classical learning was a defining feature of Renaissance education. Humanists sought out and studied ancient manuscripts, many of which had been preserved in monastic libraries or rediscovered during the Crusades. The study of these classical texts was not merely an academic exercise but was seen as a way to cultivate virtue and wisdom. Humanists believed that the moral lessons contained in classical literature could help individuals lead virtuous lives and contribute to the common good.

One of the most influential classical works rediscovered during the Renaissance was Plato’s dialogues, which had a profound impact on Renaissance philosophy. The study of Plato’s works, along with the teachings of his followers in the Platonic Academy of Florence, encouraged a new way of thinking about the relationship between the material and spiritual worlds. Aristotle also remained a central figure in Renaissance education, particularly in the study of logic and natural philosophy.

The Rise of Humanist Educators

The rise of Humanist educators during the Renaissance played a key role in transforming the educational system. Vittorino da Feltre’s school in Mantua, known as the Casa Giocosa (The Happy House), was one of the most famous Humanist schools of the time. Vittorino combined the study of classical texts with physical education and moral instruction, believing that a well-rounded education should nurture both the body and the mind. Similarly, Guarino da Verona’s school in Ferrara emphasized the study of Latin and Greek as the foundation of a Humanist education.

Impact on Universities and Women's Education

The spread of Humanist education also influenced the development of universities during the Renaissance. While medieval universities had been primarily focused on theology and scholasticism, Renaissance universities began to incorporate Humanist subjects into their curricula.

While education during the Renaissance was primarily aimed at men, there were notable exceptions that demonstrated the intellectual potential of women. Some women from noble or wealthy families were able to receive a Humanist education, often through private tutors. Isabella d’Este, the Marchioness of Mantua, was one of the most prominent female patrons of the arts and an intellectual leader in Renaissance Italy. Similarly, Laura Cereta (1469-1499) was an Italian Humanist and scholar who advocated for women’s education and intellectual equality. Although these examples were rare, they reflect the growing awareness of the importance of education for all individuals during the Renaissance.

Lasting Impact and Legacy

The educational innovations of the Renaissance had a lasting impact on European society and culture. The emphasis on the liberal arts, classical learning, and the development of the individual became central to the education of the elite, influencing the curricula of universities and schools for centuries to come. Moreover, the Renaissance model of education laid the foundation for the development of modern education systems, particularly in its focus on critical thinking, individual potential, and the cultivation of a well-rounded intellect.

The revival of classical learning during the Renaissance also helped to inspire the Enlightenment, a period of intellectual and cultural growth in the 18th century that built upon the Renaissance ideals of reason, knowledge, and individual freedom. Renaissance education represented a profound shift in the way knowledge was acquired, understood, and disseminated. Through the revival of classical learning and the development of the liberal arts curriculum, Humanist scholars transformed the intellectual landscape of Europe, promoting the values of individualism, critical inquiry, and moral philosophy. This new model of education not only shaped the intellectual elite of the Renaissance but also laid the groundwork for the development of modern education systems.

Humanistic Learning Theory: A Student-Centered Approach

Humanism recognizes the basic dignity and worth of each individual and believes people should be able to exercise some control over their environment. Although humanism as an educational philosophy has its roots in the Italian Renaissance, the more modern theorists associated with this approach include John Dewey, Carl Rogers, Maria Montessori, Paolo Freire, and Abraham Maslow. Humanist learning theory is a whole-person approach to education that centers on the individual learners and their needs, and that considers affective as well as cognitive aspects of learning.

At its core, “humanism in education traditionally has referred to a broad, diffuse outlook emphasizing human freedom, dignity, autonomy, and individualism” (Lucas, 1996). Humanism centers the individual person as the subject and recognizes learners as whole beings with emotional and affective states that accompany their cognitive development. Recognizing the role of students’ emotions means understanding how those emotions impact learning. Student anxiety, say around a test or a research paper, can interfere with the cognitive processes necessary to be successful. In a library context, Mellon (1986) identified the phenomenon of library anxiety, or the negative emotions that some people experience when doing research or interacting with library tools and services. This anxiety can distract learners and make it difficult to engage in the processes necessary to search for, evaluate, and synthesize the information they need to complete their task. A humanist approach to education recognizes these affective states and seeks to limit their negative impact. For instance, we can acknowledge that feelings of anxiety are common so learners recognize that they are not alone.

Self-Direction and Self-Actualization

Because humanists see people as autonomous beings, they believe that learning should be self-directed, meaning students should have some choice in what and how they learn. Humanistic education is often connected with student-centered pedagogical approaches such as differentiated curricula, self-paced learning, and discovery learning (Lucas, 1996). Self-directed learning can take many forms, but it generally means that the instructor acts as a guide, and learners are given the freedom to take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers will provide the materials and opportunities for learning, but students will engage with the learning on their own terms.

Humanists also believe that learning is part of a process of self-actualization. They maintain that learning should be internally motivated and driven by students’ interests and goals, rather than externally motivated and focused on a material end goal such as achievement on tests, or employment (Sharp, 2012). The expectation is that when students are allowed to follow their interests and be creative, and when learning takes place within a supportive environment, students will engage in learning for its own sake. This emphasis on self-actualization is largely based on Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs. Maslow identified five levels of needs: basic physiological needs such as food, water, and shelter; safety and security needs; belongingness and love needs, including friends and intimate relationships; esteem needs, including feelings of accomplishment; and self-actualization, when people achieve their full potential. Importantly, these needs are hierarchical, meaning a person cannot achieve the higher needs such as esteem and self-actualization until more basic needs such as food and safety are met.

Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed

In his book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Freire (2000) brings together many of the student-centered elements of humanistic education, with a strong emphasis on social justice aspects of learning and teaching. In contrast to behaviorist approaches, Freire emphasizes the importance of students’ life experience to their learning. He criticizes what he describes as the “banking model” of education, in which students are viewed as passive and empty vessels into which teachers simply deposit bits of knowledge that students are expected to regurgitate on exams or papers without any meaningful interaction. Freire insists that learning must be relevant to the student’s life and the student should be an active participant in order for learning to be meaningful.

While a student-centered approach and choice can be introduced in any classroom, observers note that in an age of curriculum frameworks and standardized tests, where teachers are often constrained by the material, the ability to provide students with choice and allow for exploration is limited (Sharp, 2012; Zucca-Scott, 2010). Librarians often face similar constraints. School librarians also must meet state and district curriculum standards. Academic librarians generally depend on faculty invitations to conduct instruction and need to adapt their sessions to fit the content, time frame, and learning objectives of the faculty member. Nevertheless, we can always find ways to integrate some self-direction. For instance, rather than using planned examples to demonstrate searches, we might have students suggest topics to search.

Influential Thinkers in Humanistic Education

Johann Comenius (1592-1670)

Known as the "Father of Modern Education," Comenius was a Moravian educator who believed in the unity of knowledge and its accessibility to all. His work, "The Great Didactic," emphasized the importance of practical, experiential learning, arguing that education should be tailored to the developmental stages of students. Comenius envisioned schools as places where children could actively engage with the world, fostering a love for learning.

John Dewey (1859-1952)

An influential American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer, Dewey's ideas have had a profound impact on modern education. Dewey believed that education should not only prepare students for life but also be life itself. He championed the idea of learning through experience, urging educators to focus on the whole child and their social, emotional, and intellectual development. Dewey's philosophy laid the groundwork for progressive education, where the emphasis is on active, hands-on learning.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952)

Maria Montessori, an Italian physician and educator, is renowned for her innovative approach to early childhood education. The Montessori Method emphasizes the importance of allowing children to explore their natural curiosity in a prepared environment. Montessori believed that education should be a holistic experience, nurturing not just academic skills but also character and independence. Her emphasis on self-directed learning and respect for the child's individuality has influenced educational practices worldwide.

Paulo Freire (1921-1997)

A Brazilian educator and philosopher, Freire's work centered on critical pedagogy. His seminal work, "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," critiqued traditional education systems for perpetuating oppressive structures. Freire advocated for an education that empowers learners to critically analyze and transform their social reality. He believed in dialogue, collaboration, and the co-creation of knowledge, emphasizing the role of education in fostering social justice and equality.

The Importance of Humanism in Education

Fostering Intrinsic Motivation

Humanistic education recognizes that students are not passive vessels waiting to be filled with knowledge. Instead, it sees them as active, curious individuals who seek meaning and understanding. By aligning educational experiences with students' interests and needs, humanism fosters intrinsic motivation-the drive to learn for the sake of learning itself. This intrinsic motivation becomes a powerful force that propels students to explore, question, and discover.

Nurturing Well-Rounded Individuals

Humanism rejects the notion of education as a mere transmission of facts. Instead, it emphasizes the development of the whole person. By considering the social, emotional, and ethical dimensions of learning, humanistic education nurtures well-rounded individuals. This approach acknowledges that academic success is just one facet of a person's growth; character, empathy, and a sense of purpose are equally vital.

Encouraging Critical Thinking

In a world inundated with information, the ability to think critically is paramount. Humanistic education encourages students to question, analyze, and evaluate information rather than accepting it passively. By fostering a culture of inquiry, students develop the skills to navigate complexity, make informed decisions, and contribute meaningfully to society.

Fostering Creativity and Innovation

Humanism celebrates the inherent creativity of the human mind. By providing opportunities for exploration, experimentation, and self-expression, humanistic education cultivates an environment conducive to creativity and innovation. This is crucial in preparing students for a rapidly changing world where adaptability and original thinking are highly valued.

Building Meaningful Connections

Humanistic education recognizes the importance of relationships in the learning process. Teachers, as facilitators of learning, play a crucial role in creating a supportive and collaborative classroom environment. Students are not viewed as isolated learners but as members of a learning community. This emphasis on connection enhances the overall educational experience, creating a sense of belonging and shared purpose.

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