Learning Design Theory Overview
In today's dynamic educational landscape, instructional design plays a crucial role in shaping effective and engaging learning experiences. Instructional design is a planning process, a systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation. This article provides an overview of learning design theory, exploring its foundations, key models, and practical applications.
Foundations of Learning Theories
Although there are multiple theories of learning, there are three principle foundations that influence most instructional design models today. These learning strategies include behaviorist learning theory, cognitivist learning theory, and constructivist learning theory.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a learning theory that emphasizes the importance of observable behaviors in understanding and explaining the learning process. It originated with B.F. Skinner in the early twentieth century. He believed that behaviors are learned from a learner’s environment. As an Instructional Designer, the concept of behaviorism relies on the understanding that learners will develop learning based on observations of their surroundings.
Behaviorism posits that learning occurs through the establishment of associations between stimuli (external events) and responses (observable behaviors). B.F. Skinner introduced the concept of operant conditioning, which involves modifying behavior through the use of reinforcements and punishments. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding a desired behavior, making it more likely to be repeated. Negative reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus, also increasing the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Behaviorism suggests that behavior can be modified and shaped through careful manipulation of reinforcements and punishments.
Behaviorists focus solely on observable behaviors and do not delve into internal mental processes, emotions, or cognitive states. Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning contributed to behaviorism by showing how reflexive behaviors could be conditioned to occur in response to previously neutral stimuli. Behaviorism also discusses the concepts of generalization and discrimination. Although behaviorism primarily focuses on observable behaviors, it also recognizes that individuals can learn by observing the behaviors and consequences of others.
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For instance, if a learner observes another student receiving a reward or praise for a job well done, then the student doing the observation will likely want to replicate that action to receive the same praise or reward. The rewards presented are used to lead learners along the path of reaching the learning outcome. According to Keraminda (2015), “…the aim of a behavioristic-oriented Instructional Design strategy for eLearning must be to provide learners with the appropriate stimuli, that is, with opportunities that help them demonstrate that they can express desired behaviors that prove that learning has taken place.” A behavioristic approach focuses on guiding learners to reach preestablished learning outcomes. Positive reinforcements are not the only way behaviorism can be utilized. Behaviorism can also be used for negative reinforcement. If a learner observes a student answering a question wrong, then the learner conducting the observation will learn what the answer is not. This negative action creates a positive reinforcement the learner observes from their environment.
While behaviorism has contributed valuable insights into learning and behavior modification, it has been criticized for oversimplifying human learning by ignoring internal cognitive processes and emotions. Critics argue that focusing solely on observable behaviors neglects the complex mental aspects of learning, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and creativity. Behaviorism is a learning theory that highlights the significance of external stimuli and observable behaviors in the learning process.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism is a learning theory that places a strong emphasis on the mental processes and cognitive activities involved in learning. Unlike behaviorism, which primarily focuses on observable behaviors, cognitivism delves into the internal workings of the mind, including perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Cognitivism views the human mind as an information-processing system. It emphasizes how learners acquire, organize, store, and retrieve information in their minds. According to cognitivism, learners construct mental frameworks called schemas to organize and make sense of new information. Cognitivism highlights the importance of metacognition, which refers to the awareness and control individuals have over their own cognitive processes.
Cognitivism recognizes that learning in one context can be applied to other situations, a concept known as transfer of learning. Cognitivism emphasizes the role of problem-solving in learning. Cognitivism emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their own understanding and meaning from the information they encounter. Cognitivism is closely related to cognitive development theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget.
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As information is received, the working memory processes the information. From there, the information moves to the short-term memory, temporarily remembering the learning context. As the learning context is visited more often, it is moved to long-term memory. Schema is used to transition learning into long-term memory. Schema is used to chunk information together. Tying learning steps to a picture is an example of schema. As an Instructional Designer, it is important to focus on the layout of the design. The design needs to concentrate on intrinsic, extraneous, and germane loads. Extraneous load relates to outside forces related to the learning that affect the outcome. For instance, unrelated pictures or videos would hinder understanding of the context. Germane load is the use of schema. As mentioned earlier, a schema is the chucking of information into segments as it is moved into the long-term memory. All these need to be considered when creating learning.
Cognitivism has greatly enriched our understanding of learning by focusing on the complexities of mental processes. However, it has been criticized for sometimes neglecting the influence of social and cultural factors on learning. In summary, cognitivism is a learning theory that places mental processes at the center of the learning experience. It emphasizes the role of information processing, schema development, metacognition, and problem-solving in how individuals acquire, organize, and use knowledge.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their own understanding of knowledge and the world around them. Unlike more passive learning theories, constructivism posits that learners are not empty vessels waiting to be filled with information. Instead, they actively engage with new information, building upon their prior knowledge and experiences to create meaning.
Active Learning: Constructivism highlights the importance of active participation by learners in the learning process. Social Interaction: Interaction with others plays a crucial role in constructivism. Educators provide scaffolding, which is temporary support, to learners as they tackle more complex tasks.
This concept, developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky, refers to the range of tasks that learners can perform with the guidance and support of a more knowledgeable individual. Reflective thinking is central to constructivism. Constructivist learning is often more meaningful when situated in authentic, real-world contexts.
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Lev Vygotsky originated social constructivism. The premise for his theory is that learners learn from social interaction and not from individual learning. An example would be a group of K-12 students working together on a project. The theory states that learners in the group will learn from each other. Each learner has something to contribute to the project. As the group collaborates, learning is enforced. The instructor for the class would only be required to mediate the groups. Compared to behaviorism, social constructivism depends on both an intrinsic and an extrinsic motivation for learning. Motivation to learn is enforced through peer interaction. Berkeley Graduate Division (2019) further states, “… As an Instructional Designer, the focus on social interaction is the way to incorporate this theory into a lesson design. Because learners have different levels of intrinsic motivation, a lesson has to challenge the learner and not be too easy. Next, the Instructional Designer needs to look at curiosity. How can the Instructional Designer present the lesson to spark curiosity in the learner? Curiosity will naturally spark motivation for the learner to learn. Williams (2009) states, “Curiosity is the response to any kind of new or different idea that drives a student to want to discover more about that idea.” Motivation can be exercised through technology.
While constructivism offers a powerful framework for understanding learning, it has been criticized for potentially downplaying the role of explicit instruction and the importance of foundational knowledge. Critics also argue that in some situations, learners might construct misconceptions or incomplete understanding if not guided effectively. Constructivism is a learning theory that places learners at the center of the learning process. It emphasizes active participation, personal meaning-making, social interaction, and the role of prior knowledge in constructing new understanding.
Key Instructional Design Models
Dozens of instructional design-related theories and models grew to the forefront in the post-World War II years. Models of instructional design bridge the gap, providing clear pathways to translate theory into practice.
ADDIE Model
Developed by Florida State University’s Center for Educational Technology in the 1970s, ADDIE is as vital as ever to the field of instructional design today. Many other subsequent approaches to learning design build upon or adapt core elements of the ADDIE model. ADDIE is arguably the most important instructional design model because it provides a universal framework for instructional design.
ADDIE is the most widely recognized name among professional learning designers. The ADDIE Model is the leading approach to instructional design. Intended initially to be a linear process, the model has become more cyclical. It’s the primary instructional design model. Because it’s simple to use, flexible, and requires alignment with business strategy. The model consists of five phases:
- Analysis: Analyzing the learning needs and goals.
- Design: Designing the instructional materials and strategies.
- Development: Developing the instructional materials.
- Implementation: Implementing the design.
- Evaluation: Evaluating the outcomes of implementing the design.
Although these phases are distinct and clearly defined, the ADDIE model leaves some room for flexibility by promoting iterative improvements driven by ongoing feedback. ADDIE has been the go-to instructional design framework for decades, but it presents a few potential weaknesses.
SAM (Successive Approximation Model)
SAM (short for Successive Approximation Model) is a leading example of the industry trend toward iterative design and delivery frameworks now being used to meet the need for speed in the fast-growing world of instructional design. Developed by instructional design pioneer Dr. Michael Allen, the Successive Approximation Model resembles the ADDIE model, but strives to streamline the process and, in doing so, overcome one of the chief complaints surrounding the ADDIE approach: a sequential structure that limits opportunities for rapid implementation or improvements. Simplifying key processes, the SAM encompasses three main stages, which allow for maximum feedback and quick adjustments. This model is valued for its holistic and flexible approach but has limitations. Its fluidity, while appealing to many instructional designers, can cause confusion or frustration for others.
The Dick and Carey Instructional Model
The Dick and Carey Instructional Model, developed by Walter Dick and Lou Carey, presents a systematic approach to instructional design by treating instruction as a system of interrelated components. It emphasizes carefully aligning goals, analysis, strategy and evaluation to create effective educational experiences. Sharing an acronym with the Successive Approximation Model, the Systems Approach Model is frequently referred to as the Dick and Carey Model in hopes of avoiding confusion.
Kirkpatrick Model
The Kirkpatrick Model, developed by Dr. Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959, is a widely used framework for evaluating the effectiveness of training programs. It provides a systematic method to assess the impact on participants and organizations by examining outcomes at multiple levels. This approach helps organizations understand how their programs influence immediate reactions, knowledge acquisition, behavior change and overall results.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical framework developed by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues in 1956 and revised in 2001 by Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl. It categorizes cognitive skills to help educators design curricula that promote higher-order thinking and deeper learning. Educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom was a major advocate for the theory of mastery learning, which suggests that learners must reach an elite level of understanding or competencies prior to moving on to new topics or skills. He is best known for his hierarchical classification of learning objectives, which is commonly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy. This provides a detailed overview of the numerous levels of cognitive functioning, ranging from basic recall to higher-level thinking skills. As students move through strategies aligned to more challenging tasks, they immerse themselves in the content and explore the content at many levels.
Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction
Gagné identified five major categories of learning - verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Through his Nine Events of Instruction, educational psychology expert Robert Gagné proposed an actionable strategy for enhancing learning. As its name suggests, this consists of nine main steps and suggests that if students are exposed to all nine elements, they will be far more likely to reach successful learning outcomes. Each event within this framework is accompanied by an activity, which is needed to produce the intended event. Many teachers use this system to guide lesson planning.
Principles of Instructional Design
Derived from the many theories highlighted above, the principles of instructional design aim to provide actionable strategies so that designers can translate theoretical concepts into impactful learning solutions.
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction
David Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction aim to integrate the best or most resonant of the many theories and psychological schools that underscore modern instructional design. Merrill is quick to explain that “information alone is not instruction,” revealing the need for engaging materials and strategies to ensure that difficult concepts resonate with learners.
Significance of Instructional Design
The sheer number of learning and development models can be overwhelming and even confusing, cluttering the landscape of instructional design. First, don’t overthink it. This isn’t a call for you to memorize them all and put them into action. You could easily and unnecessarily complicate your entire design process by trying to incorporate too much and that’s not the intention of this post. Second, while it’s not necessary to memorize every single model, being aware of the variety can significantly enhance your understanding and approach to learning design. Use this list of learning theories as a resource to get familiar with all of them at a high level, and if one sounds interesting to you, use the link to learn more or start your own research. You can easily get lost in academic papers and research into every one of them, but the links I have included for each one share information at a level that makes it quick to understand and apply if you want to.
Instructional design supports both the content and execution of learning, which without clear direction, can become a chief cause for concern, as learners cannot predict how effective or engaging any given course will ultimately prove. Content and execution are best addressed through evidence-based strategies. This is where the powerful field of instructional design comes into play.
Navigating the Landscape of Instructional Design
The new challenge? Determining which learning theories and models to use in which situations. There is no such thing as a one-size-fits-all approach. Still, a research-backed blueprint can provide valuable guidance, ensuring that materials can cater to diverse learning styles. Numerous principles and models promise to guide the instructional design process. Each approach offers its own unique advantages, but a few downsides often accompany these. Optimal selection starts by reviewing various theories, principles and models. Instructional design models should be tailored to serve specific learning populations. This is not possible without understanding what learners need and how they hope to leverage newly developed skills or insights. This may begin with a needs analysis, which involves securing data from diverse sources, including interviews, surveys or focus groups. Once learner needs are fully understood, these insights can form the basis for the strategic selection of instructional design models. For example, Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction may prove most relevant if students prioritize experiential learning or real-world application. Learning environments may also factor into these decisions, as should the time and resources available for the actual development process. If, for example, limited time is available, the ADDIE model is best avoided.
Instructional design theories offer profound insights into how different audiences learn and which teaching methodologies or materials are most likely to facilitate effective learning. Without models or frameworks, however, it can be difficult to put instructional strategies into action.
Adapting to Diverse Learning Needs
Different learners have dramatically different needs, and while these may also vary within specific programs or courses, these distinctions must be considered in the context of core instructional design theories and models. No one theory is equally relevant in every setting or situation, and in many cases, a single theory will not provide the flexibility or nuance needed to meet unique instructional needs. This is why Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction were created. These were originally intended to act as a unifying framework, tying together the best elements of various theories and models of instructional design.
The Importance of Feedback and Evaluation
Understanding the differences between key theories is crucial, but these can ultimately be mapped to influence different aspects of instructional design. Models such as ADDIE emphasize evaluation as a critical part of instructional design. However, feedback is always crucial regardless of the preferred model or framework. Ideally, instructional designers will incorporate feedback into the structure of learning initiatives, seeking insight through a combination of user surveys and analytics.
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