"Re-education" Camps in Vietnam: A System of Political Imprisonment and Forced Labor

Following the end of the Vietnam War in May 1975, the Vietnamese Communist government planned, advocated, and operated a system of prison camps known as "re-education" camps, also referred to as forced labor camps. This system, drawing from the experiences of Gulags in Siberia and forced labor camps in China, was used as a sophisticated and inhumane method of detention and repression, spreading from South to North Vietnam.

The Aftermath of the Vietnam War

After President Duong Van Minh announced the surrender on the radio, some military officers, including generals of the Army of The Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), committed suicide. The exact number of prisoners in the "re-education" camps is unaccounted for, but estimates range from 500,000 to 1 million.

Implementation and Structure

In May 1975, specific South Vietnamese groups received orders to report to the new government, the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam, commanded by representatives appointed from the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

Soldiers, non-commissioned officers, and low-ranking personnel of the former South Vietnamese government underwent a three-day "concentration of training and re-education" from June 11th to 13th, 1975.
Senior ARVN military and police officers, along with middle and senior intelligence officers, members of the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the ARVN, and leaders of non-communist political parties labeled "reactionaries" were ordered to gather at different locations. They were instructed to bring "paper, pens, clothing, mosquito nets, personal belongings, food, or money for a month."

Purpose and Justification

In theory, the purpose of these camps was to 're-educate' former military officers, government workers, and others associated with the previous South Vietnamese government or its American allies. The Hanoi government defended the "re-education" camps by labeling the prisoners as war criminals, claiming they were guilty of acts of national treason as defined in the 1967 Law on Counter-revolutionary Crimes.

Sentences and Detainment

The sentences varied based on the perceived level of mis-education or mis-guidance. Lower-ranked officials, civil servants, and enlisted soldiers were typically sentenced to between three to five years of “re-education”. Higher-ranked officials, officers, and anyone considered having committed serious transgressions could be sentenced to ten years or more. These sentences were often extended indefinitely without any clear process for review or appeal.

Categories of Prisoners

Those imprisoned in "re-education" camps from 1975 fell into two categories:

Those who collaborated with the Americans and its allies during the war.
Those arrested after 1975 for attempting to exercise democratic freedoms outlined in Article 11 of the 1973 Paris Agreements.

Camp Conditions and Treatment

Conditions in the "re-education" camps were harsh and often brutal. Located in remote environments like jungles or mountains, prisoners were subjected to hard physical labor, often in dangerous conditions. Food and medical care were inadequate, leading to malnutrition and disease. Prisoners also underwent political indoctrination sessions, learning about socialism and the perceived evils of the old regime and its Western allies.

Labor and Hardship

The labor was mostly hard physical work, some of it very dangerous, such as mine field sweeping. No technical equipment was provided for this work, and as a result, many prisoners were killed or wounded in mine field explosions. Other work included cutting trees, planting corn and root crops, clearing the jungle, digging wells, latrines and garbage pits, and constructing barracks within the camp and fences around it. The inmates were generally organized into platoons and work units, where they competed with each other for better records and work achievements. This often pushed inmates to exhaustion and nervousness with each person and group striving to surpass or at least fulfill the norms set by camp authorities, or they would be classified as 'lazy' and ordered to do 'compensation work' on Sundays. The work was done in the hot tropical sun, by prisoners who were poorly nourished and received little or no medical care. The poor health, combined with hard work, mandatory confessions and political indoctrination, made life very difficult and contributed to a high death rate.

Confessions and Indoctrination

Another feature emphasized during the early stage of re-education, but continued throughout one's imprisonment, was the confession of one's alleged misdeeds in the past. All prisoners in the camps were required to write confessions, no matter how trivial their alleged crimes might have been. Some former ARVN generals, now held prisoner, wrote confessions about several battle and military campaign tactics before 1975.

Violence and Punishment

It was acknowledged by Hanoi that violence was in fact directed against prisoners, although it maintained that these were isolated cases and not indicative of general camp policy. Former prisoners, on the other hand, reported frequent beatings for minor infractions, such as missing work because of illness. Violations of rules led to various forms of punishment, including being tied up in contorted positions, shackled in conex boxes or dark cells, forced to work extra hours or receiving reduced food rations. Many prisoners were beaten, some to death, or subjected to very harsh forms of punishment due to the cruelty of certain camp officials and guards. Some were executed, especially for attempting to escape. A common form of punishment is confinement to the CONEX boxes-air-freight containers that were left behind by the United States in 1975. The boxes vary in size; some are made of wood and others of metal. In a CONEX box 4 feet high and 4 feet wide, for example, several prisoners would be confined with their feet shackled, and allowed only one bowl of rice and water a day.

Health and Starvation

Former prisoners have described the constant hunger that resulted from a lack of food while they were in the camps. The lack of food caused severe malnutrition for some prisoners and weakened their resistance to various diseases. Most common among the diseases were malaria, beriberi and dysentery. Deaths from starvation and disease occurred frequently and bodies were often buried in graves on site which were later abandoned.

Family Visits and Support

By 1980, official regulations stated that prisoners in the camps could be visited by their immediate family once every three months. Family visits not only meant personal contact, but also it meant they could bring food to their relatives. Some reports have stated that the prisoners in these camps would not have survived without such food. The duration of these visits was reported (by former prisoners) to last from 15 to 30 minutes. Family visits could be suspended for prisoners who broke rules. Only families who proved their loyalty to the government were allowed visiting privileges.

Release and Aftermath

In June 1976, the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam stated that those in the camps would either be tried or released after three years of imprisonment, but this statement was not honored. Since there were no clear criteria for releasing the inmates from the camps, bribery and family connections with high-ranking officials were more likely to speed up release than the prisoner's good behavior. Released prisoners were put on probation and placed under surveillance for six months to one year. During that time they had no official status, no exit visas, no access to government food rations, and no right to send their children to school. If the progress of the former prisoners was judged unsatisfactory during this period, they could lose their jobs, be put under surveillance, or be sent back to the camps.

The Exodus of Boat People

The end of “re-education” centers came about with the North guided government of South Vietnam announced that those would stay in the centers for an additional three years before they would get released. Even upon released, individuals would be placed under strict regulations and have countless restrictions placed on them to the point that they barely qualify as citizens of Vietnam. This resulted in an influx of Vietnamese people becoming boat people in order to avoid being sent to “re-education” centers.

Personal Accounts and Testimonies

Hien Van Le, a Lieutenant Colonel and Head of Military Intelligence of the South Vietnamese Marine Corps, described the camps as prisons where the Communist government aimed to "kill us slowly." He recounted the hard labor, meager rations, and the feeling of betrayal by the American government.

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Accounts from former prisoners and reports from organizations like Amnesty International paint a picture of severe hardship, starvation, overwork, and harsh punishment for minor infractions.

The Legacy and Impact

The "re-education" camps remain a controversial and painful chapter in Vietnamese history. The experiences of those imprisoned in these camps and their families have had a lasting impact on the Vietnamese diaspora, shaping their identity and their relationship with Vietnam.

Vietnamese Refugees and the Diaspora

Many women whose fathers, brothers, and sons served in the ARVN military and sent to “re-education” camps were forced to be the sole providers for the family. Discrimination in schooling and employment occurred frequently to families that worked with the puppet government and American imperialists. Many women and children fled without their families in “re-education” camps. Over 6,000 women imprisoned in re education camps often lacked basic sanitary care and were forced to raise their children in camps.

Other Targeted Groups

Those considered reactionary to the new regime (mostly in Sài Gòn) were forced to cultivate barren lands away from the city. Targeted groups: Ethnic Chinese; Bắc 54, Northern Vietnamese who fled the North to the South in 1954; religious groups including Catholics, Cao Đài, Hoa Hảo, etc.; and ethnic minorities. Conditions were often so harsh that families returned to the city or fled by boat. Some families had never cultivated a day in their life because they lived in Sài Gòn.

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