Specific Learning Difficulties: A Comprehensive Definition and Overview

Specific learning disabilities (SLD) represent a diverse group of neurodevelopmental disorders that affect how individuals process information. These difficulties can manifest in various ways, impacting academic skills and potentially leading to emotional and behavioral challenges. Understanding the definition of SLD, its various forms, and the appropriate interventions is crucial for supporting individuals with these challenges.

Defining Specific Learning Disabilities

A specific learning disability is defined as a disorder in one or more of the basic learning processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written. These difficulties may manifest in significant impairments affecting the ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematics. According to the federal definition, a specific learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language. The disability may be exhibited as an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

It's important to note that a specific learning disability does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, motor, intellectual, or emotional/behavioral disability, limited English proficiency, or environmental, cultural, or economic factors.

Minnesota, for example, adheres to the federal definition of SLD. The Minnesota Rule for SLD was adopted in September 2009 and includes conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The Minnesota Department of Education (MDE) is currently working with a committee to amend SLD criteria for eligibility in special education, holding technical assistance sessions to explore research and ideas related to the recommended criteria.

Types of Specific Learning Disabilities

The term "specific learning disability" is an umbrella term that encompasses many different types of learning issues. These include, but are not limited to:

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Dyslexia: Primarily affects reading, impacting word recognition, decoding, and spelling. This includes difficulties in word reading accuracy, reading rate or fluency, and reading comprehension.
Dysgraphia: Affects writing abilities, including spelling, grammar, handwriting, and organization of thoughts on paper. SLDs related to impaired written expression are categorized into two groups: one involving difficulties with spelling accuracy, punctuation accuracy, and grammar accuracy, and the other involving difficulties with organization or clarity of written expression.
Dyscalculia: Affects mathematical abilities, including number sense, calculation, problem-solving, and mathematical reasoning. This encompasses difficulties in number sense, memorization of arithmetic facts, accurate or fluent calculation, and mathematical reasoning.
Developmental Aphasia: Affects the understanding or production of spoken language.

Prevalence and Impact of SLD

It is estimated that 5-15% of school-age children across different languages and cultures have an SLD. SLDs are neurobiologically determined by an interaction of genetic and environmental factors, reducing the ability of the brain to efficiently and accurately perceive or process verbal or non-verbal information.

The affected academic skills are substantially and quantifiably below those expected for the individual’s chronological age and they lead to significant impairment in academic or occupational performance and daily life activities. Moreover, a link between SLD and emotional problems has been repeatedly reported in psychological literature. According to recent studies, children with SLD experience significantly more emotional distress in comparison to their peers without it. Furthermore, children with SLD have higher rates of school dropout and lower college attendance than those without SLD. School dropout and co-occurring depressive symptoms result in an increased risk for mental health outcomes, including suicidality.

Challenges arise during the period of school-age development, although they may not become fully apparent until the demands placed on individuals with affected academic skills surpass their capacities.

Identifying and Diagnosing SLD

The only way to find out whether a child has a specific learning disability is by completing a full educational evaluation, including reading, language, writing, and math tests. If a child struggles with listening, speaking, reading, writing, spelling, or math, parents and educators should take note of the specific issues observed. The more information available when talking to a specialist, the better.

Parents should talk to their child’s teacher, bringing up their concerns and asking whether he or she has noticed any issues in the classroom. To determine whether these issues are related to a specific learning disability, a full educational evaluation is necessary. This can be done through the public school district or with a private evaluator. The sooner a child’s learning issue is identified, the sooner proper interventions can be arranged.

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Intervention and Support for Individuals with SLD

Once a child is diagnosed with a specific learning disability, several steps can be taken to provide support:

Understanding the Specific Diagnosis: Learning about the specific learning disability helps in understanding the challenges and identifying appropriate strategies.
Finding a Specialist: Look for a specialist with ongoing professional education in learning disabilities as well as the child’s required subject area - whether that’s reading, writing, math, or a combination of those.
Classroom Accommodations: Simple classroom changes can benefit a child with SLD. The right accommodation will depend on the specific learning disability.
Individualized Education Plan (IEP): An IEP maps out a blueprint for intervention, including the child’s needs and how the school will meet those requirements.

The Role of Assessment and Treatment

A study was conducted to investigate the profile of children and adolescents with SLD. Specifically, the study sought to determine whether children and adolescents with SLD associated with behavioral symptoms exhibit significantly different characteristics compared to children with a typical SLD profile, thus representing a distinct profile. The study also intended to investigate correlations between cognitive and behavioral measures in both profiles. Furthermore, the study aimed to identify the skills that are most significantly compromised during the initial evaluation (T0) and measure the potential improvement of these impairments following treatment. Differences between children and adolescents due to gender were tested as well. On the basis of these analyses, the study aims to suggest effective strategies for prevention and intervention in SLD.

Participants in the study were recruited at the “Fondazione Policlinico A. Gemelli,” a specialized center in Italy for diagnosing SLD. Children and adolescents presenting with potential learning disorders undergo a thorough assessment involving comprehensive evaluations of cognitive abilities, specific learning skills, and emotional-behavioral functioning, following the guidelines outlined by the World Health Organization (WHO).

The cognitive profile was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale, fourth edition (WISC-IV). To assess behavioral and emotional impairments, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) 6-18 was utilized.

Research Findings on SLD

The study yielded several key findings:

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Emotional and Behavioral Challenges: The analysis indicated that 52% of the total sample showed an impairment condition on the internalizing scale (anxious/depression and withdrawn/depressed are the most compromised scales), 40% in externalizing scale, and 40% in the total problems scale.
Differences Between SLD Profiles: In the typical SLD sample, 16% presented an impairment in the internalizing scale, 4% an impairment in the externalizing scale, and 5% an impaired condition in the total problems scale. Analyzing SLD atypical sample’s emotional and behavioral evaluation, it was found that 94% showed impairment on the internalizing scale, 49% on the externalizing scale, and 81% on the total problems scale.
Impact of Intervention: Regarding the total sample’s emotional and behavioral evaluation at T1, 52% displayed problems on the Internalizing Scale, while an impairment in the externalizing scale was found in 18% of the sample (attention problems and thought problems were the most compromised scales), and 37% showed lower scores at the total problems scale.
Gender and Age Differences: A significant difference in the mean scores of FIQ obtained at T0 and T1 between males and females emerged. Specifically, a significant improvement in scores from T0 to T1 was observed in the male sample compared to the female samples, who initially had a significantly higher score at T0 but showed a slight decline at T1. A significant difference in the mean scores of FIQ obtained at T0 and T1 between children and adolescents was found as well. Specifically, an improvement in performance was observed in children, which was not observed in adolescents.

Specific Cognitive and Academic Findings

In the typical SLD sample at T0, significant correlations emerged between number comprehension and calculation and VCI. As regards behavioral aspects, a positive correlation between the internalizing scale and the accuracy of writing was found. Furthermore, a relationship emerged between the combination of the different emotional and behavioral aspects (internalizing, externalizing, and total problems) and academic skills.

At T0, a significant correlation emerged between reading speed and text comprehension, VSI, WMI, and PSI, as well as significant positive correlations were evident between the internalizing, externalizing, and total problems scales and academic skills.

Overall Improvement with Intervention

Total Sample: t tests revealed a significant increase in FIQ scores. Analyzing the CBCL scores, a significant decrease in total problems scale scores was observed. Similarly, the ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference between T0 and T1 in the FIQ scores and in the VSI as well. Atypical SLD Sample: Investigating the trend of the atypical SLD sample between T0 and T1, no significant improvement has been detected in general cognitive functioning, academic achievement, and emotional and behavioral aspects.

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