The History of Student and Teacher Punishment: From Ancient Times to Modern Debates

Corporal punishment in schools, defined as the deliberate infliction of physical pain in response to undesired behavior by students, has a long and complex history. Typically, this involves striking a student on the buttocks or palms with an implement such as a plimsoll, rattan cane, wooden paddle, leather strap, or wooden yardstick. This article explores the evolution of student and teacher punishment, examining its historical justifications, global prevalence, and the growing movement towards its abolishment.

Historical Justifications and Legal Frameworks

In the English-speaking world, the use of corporal punishment was historically justified by the common-law doctrine in loco parentis, which granted teachers the same rights as parents to discipline children in their care. This perspective saw teachers as authority figures responsible for ensuring students adhered to established rules.

Global Perspectives and Legal Changes

Corporal punishment used to be prevalent in schools in many parts of the world. However, in recent decades, it has been outlawed in 128 countries, including all of Europe and most of South America, as well as in Canada, Japan, South Africa, New Zealand, and several other countries.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the first nation to outlaw corporal punishment in schools in 1783. From the 1917 Russian Revolution onwards, corporal punishment was outlawed in the Soviet Union, because it was deemed contrary to communist ideology. In the 1960s, Soviet visitors to western schools expressed shock at the canings witnessed there.

School corporal punishment is no longer legal in European countries except for Belarus, Vatican City (however, there are no primary or secondary schools in Vatican City) and unrecognized Transnistria. By 2016, an estimated 128 countries had prohibited corporal punishment in schools, including nearly all of Europe and most of South America and East Asia.

Many schools in Singapore and Malaysia use caning for boys as a routine official punishment for misconduct, as do some African countries. In some Middle Eastern countries, whipping is used.

In Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two partially recognized states considered by most countries as occupied territories of Georgia, corporal punishment in schools is legal and common in practice. Both countries have nearly identical school corporal punishment laws, and it can be inflicted on male students only.

Historical Examples of Corporal Punishment

The evolution of corporal punishment within a school setting dates back to before 500 BC. Ever since Greek and Roman antiquity, there has been a debate about whether or not corporal punishment should be used within an educational context.

The earliest reference to a school or classroom setting is dated back to before 500 BC. The references depicted a structure being used as a classroom which collapsed and killed 119 students in Chios, Greece. During this era of history, corporal punishment was a vital part of education and strict discipline was a common occurrence. At this point in history, punishment was severe, even if the wrongdoing was not significant. Corporal punishment was not only inflicted upon those who did something incorrectly, but even to those who did not complete tasks fast enough, or did not maintain correct posture.

Examples of corporal punishments included, but were not limited to, beating, whipping, public humiliation, and even death. Corporal punishment was not purely seen as a method of punishment, or as the harming of the child, instead, it was seen as a tool for strengthening them and preparing them for their future.

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One of the most known examples of corporal punishment from this time period is “the whipping contest” which took place during the festival of Artemis Orthia. During this contest, young boys are beaten, often to the point of death, while trying to steal cheese from the altar of Artemis Orthia. This contest took place as a method of educating boys by teaching them to endure, to problem solve, to learn by trial and error, and by learning through the observations of others. These lessons would be important in a boy’s future, especially during his mandatory military training.

Opposition to Corporal Punishment in Ancient Times

The opposition of corporal punishment in schools is not a new concept. Unsurprisingly, not everyone accepted the use of corporal punishment in an educational context. One of the most well-known individuals from this time period that opposed the use of corporal punishment as an educational aid is Quintilian. He expressed his belief that learning should be praised and those who did not want to complete their studies should not be physically punished, but should have to watch other students receive prizes for their eagerness to learn.

Vincent of Beauvais, a French Scholar, was one of many medieval philosophers that believed that corporal punishment was the key to successful education. There was no one reason decided upon as to why corporal punishment should be used as a method of teaching, but several of the believed benefits of corporal punishment were; that fear was the first step of knowledge and understanding, beating could mold the mind as well as the body, could instill morality, would help students learn and remember their previous mistakes, and would teach students obedience.

Corporal Punishment in the Middle Ages

Were teachers in the Middle Ages using “unremitting brutality” in beating their students, as was claimed by writers since the Renaissance? There has been a long history of using corporal punishment to teach students. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans all noted the use of beatings by teachers. Like today, during the Middle Ages there was also debate about when to use the rod or lash in the classroom, and the reasons used to justify it.

Alexander of Neckam states “in truth the rod is withdrawn when things are done as required. There were strict rules for when and how pupils should be beaten put forward by writers. Vincent of Beauvais argued that beating should always be accompanied by a formal warning.

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Later Shifts in Thinking

This mentality changed for many after 1690 when the “Father of Liberalism”, John Locke, published “Concerning Human Understanding”. Locke’s understanding was that children were blank slates and would become better by being guided, not disciplined.

Up until this point in history, there was not a large debate as to whether or not children should be physically punished within a school setting. Another push for the elimination of corporal punishment in schools was the abolishment of capital punishment, also known as the death penalty.

Corporal Punishment in the 19th Century

Caning was not unknown for French students in the 19th century, but they were described as "extremely sensitive" to corporal punishment and tended to make a "fuss" about its imposition. The systematic use of corporal punishment has been absent from French schools since the 19th century.

In the 19th century, social norms demanded that teachers maintain total control in the classroom. But as times changed and progressive reforms were ushered in, teachers were expected to govern by moral persuasion rather than corporal punishment. As the teaching force became more feminized (women were not just idealized, but could be paid lower wages,) these contradictions came into sharp focus.

Women teachers of the era were caught between idealized images of gentle, feminine influence and confusing, often cold conditions within NYC schools. Strict gender roles demanded that women draw upon their “maternal instincts” to instill order with ease. Even those women who thought they could draw on their own moral, maternal instincts in the classroom faced serious challenges. From a school system that tripled in size in 30 years to overcrowded schools and overwhelming bureaucracy, the deck seemed stacked against teachers. And then there were the students: As Rousmaniere explains, changing child labor laws diversified the classroom, but did not give teachers resources with which to meet a changing student population. Ultimately, the very qualities that were upheld as positive in women teachers-“femininity,” maternal care, gentleness-were seen as liabilities when it came to discipline. Caught between patience and professionalism, many women resorted to threats of physical punishment or succumbed to stress. “Classroom discipline problems were forever only teachers’ problems,” concludes Rousmaniere, who writes that social and institutional pressures were as responsible for disciplinary problems as teachers or students.

Specific Country Examples

Bolivia: Corporal punishment in all settings, including schools, was prohibited in 2014. According to the Children and Adolescents Code, "The child and adolescent has the right to good treatment, comprising a non-violent upbringing and education…"
Brazil: Corporal punishment in all settings, including schools, was prohibited in 2014.
Canada: In 2004, the Supreme Court of Canada outlawed corporal punishment in all schools, public or private. The practice itself had largely been abandoned in the 1970s when parents placed greater scrutiny on the treatment of children at school. Some Canadian provinces banned corporal punishment in public schools prior to the national ban in 2004.
China: Corporal punishment in China was officially banned after the Communist Revolution in 1949.
Egypt: A 1998 study found that random physical punishment (not proper formal corporal punishment) was being used extensively by teachers in Egypt to punish behavior they regarded as unacceptable.
Germany: School corporal punishment, historically widespread, was outlawed in different states via their administrative law at different times. It was not completely abolished everywhere until 1983. Since 1993, use of corporal punishment by a teacher has been a criminal offense.
India: Corporal punishment is banned in schools, daycare, and alternative childcare institutions. The National Policy for Children 2013 states that in education, the state shall "ensure no child is subjected to any physical punishment or mental harassment" and "promote positive engagement to impart discipline so as to provide children with a good learning experience".
Iran: On 10 August 2000, Iran "Supreme Council of Education" approved an executive regulation for Iranian schools that any verbal and physical punishment for students is forbidden.
Israel: On 25 January 2000, the Supreme Court of Israel issued a decision ruling that "corporal punishment of children by their parents is never educational", "always causes serious harm to the children" and "is indefensible".
Italy: Corporal punishment in Italian schools has a long history but was officially banned in 1928.
Malaysia: Caning, usually applied to the palm or clothed bottom, is a common form of discipline in Malaysian schools.
New Zealand: Corporal punishment in New Zealand's schools was used commonly on both girls and boys. This was abolished in practice in 1987 and criminalized on 23 July 1990.
Norway: Corporal punishment in Norwegian schools was strongly restricted in 1889 and banned outright in 1936.
Pakistan: School corporal punishment in Pakistan is not very common in modern educational institutions although it is still used in schools across the rural parts of the country as a means of enforcing student discipline.
Philippines: Corporal punishment has been prohibited in Filipino private and public schools since 1987, although many households in the country still use it to punish their children for misbehavior.
Poland: In 1783, Poland became the first country in the world to prohibit corporal punishment.
Russia: Corporal punishment was banned in Soviet (and hence Russian) schools immediately after the 1917 Russian Revolution. In addition, the Article 336 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation states that "the use, including a single occurrence, of educational methods involving physical and/or psychological violence against a student or pupil" shall constitute grounds for dismissal of any teaching professional.
Serbia: Corporal punishment was first explicitly prohibited in schools in article 67 of the Public Schools Act 1929, passed in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, of which Serbia was then a part.
Singapore: Corporal punishment is legal in Singapore schools, for male students only (it is illegal to inflict it on female students) and fully encouraged by the government in order to maintain discipline. Only a light rattan cane may be used, administered in a formal ceremony by the school management after due deliberation, not by classroom teachers.
South Africa: The use of corporal punishment in schools was prohibited by the South African Schools Act, 1996.
Spain: Spain banned school corporal punishment in 1985 under article 6 of the Right to Education (Organization) Act 8/1985.
Sweden: Corporal punishment at school has been prohibited in folkskolestadgan (the elementary school ordinance) since 1 January 1958.
Tanzania: In Tanzania, corporal punishment in schools is widely practiced and has led to lasting damage, including the death of a punished pupil.
Uganda: In Uganda, it is common practice for teachers to attempt to control large, overcrowded classes by corporal punishment.
United Kingdom: A federal law was implemented in 1998 which banned school corporal punishment. The implement used in many state and private schools in England and Wales was often a rattan cane, struck either across the student's hands, legs, or the clothed buttocks.

Arguments Against Corporal Punishment

School teachers and policymakers often rely on personal anecdotes to argue that school corporal punishment improves students' behavior and achievements. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence showing that corporal punishment leads to better control in the classrooms. A number of medical, pediatric, or psychological societies have issued statements opposing all forms of corporal punishment in schools, citing outcomes such as poorer academic achievements, increases in antisocial behaviors, injuries to students, and an unwelcoming learning environment.

An estimated 1 to 2 percent of physically punished students in the United States are seriously injured, to the point of needing medical attention. The AAP cautions that there is a risk of corporal punishment in schools fostering the impression among students that violence is an appropriate means for managing others' behavior.

According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, "Corporal punishment signals to the child that a way to settle interpersonal conflicts is to use physical force and inflict pain". The Society for Adolescent Medicine recommends developing "a milieu of effective communication, in which the teacher displays an attitude of respect for the students", as well as instruction that is stimulating and appropriate to student's abilities, various nonviolent behavior modification techniques, and involving students and parents in making decisions about school matters such as rules and educational goals.

According to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, "Children do not lose their human rights by virtue of passing through the school gates." Other international human-rights bodies supporting prohibition of corporal punishment of children in all settings, including schools, include the European Committee of Social Rights and the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child.

Corporal Punishment in the United States

Unlike all Canadian schools, public schools in 19 states across the United States of America still allow corporal punishment within classrooms, as well as private schools in 48 states. Corporal punishment in each of these states is allowed for all students, including those in preschool. The Texas Education Code from 2013 defines corporal punishment as; “The deliberate infliction of physical pain by hitting, paddling, spanking, slapping, or any other physical force used as a means of discipline”. Some counties within the 19 states even give guidelines and recommendations of wooden paddle specifications. For example, in Pickens County, Alabama it is recommended that a two-foot-long paddle, three inches in diameter, and half an inch thick be used to punish students.

There is a startling resemblance between behaviors punished in antiquity compared to behaviors punished in the modern-day United States of America. A majority of corporal punishment examples today are for incidents such as fighting with other students, bullying, or consuming alcohol on school trips, but, almost 40 percent of corporal punishment cases, according to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), are for much less serious behaviors, such as; inappropriate language, cellphone use, not completing homework, running or laughing in the hallways, mispronouncing words, leaving class without permission, and receiving a below average grade.

Disparities in the Application of Corporal Punishment in the U.S.

Corporal punishment has a nasty history that is rooted in attempts to control and instill fear in communities of color. Fear and control are not conducive to a safe and supportive school environment where all children can learn. From 1882 to 1968, more than 4,000 lynchings occurred in the United States, targeting Black Americans, mainly in those same southern states. Researchers have found connections between the prevalence of lynching in communities and other violent acts that occur today, including corporal punishment.

Black children accounted for 63% of students corporally punished, even though they made up 49% of the student population. Black girls received 73% of the punishments given to girls in the state.

In 1918, Texas passed laws that forbade the teaching of Spanish in schools. In effect, these “no Spanish” rules banned the use of students’ home language in classrooms and institutionalized decades of abusive and punitive practices, including corporal punishment.

Latino students in Arizona made up 45% of public students but accounted for 93% of those receiving corporal punishment in 2017-18.

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, thousands of Native American children were forced to attend federal boarding schools in order to assimilate them into Western culture and strip away their cultural identities. School staff also often inflicted severe corporal punishment against students for “minor offenses,” such as speaking in their Native language. Students who refused to assimilate were beaten, whipped, or placed in solitary confinement.

Native American children receive corporal punishment at almost twice the rate of their enrollment.

Students with disabilities are also disproportionately punished.

Regional Differences in the U.S.

While corporal punishment is illegal in a majority of the states, it remains deeply entrenched in the South. Ten Southern states account for more than three-quarters of all corporal punishment in public schools. Just four of those states- Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, and Texas-account for more than 70 percent.

Mississippi had the highest corporal punishment rate of all states examined - with over 9 percent of the students enrolled in public schools that allowed the practice struck during the 2013-14 and 2015-16 school years. Mississippi not only tops the list for the percentage of students struck in schools, but also the overall number of students struck in school in 2013-14 nationwide. Arkansas had the second-highest corporal punishment rate at 7.5 percent.

Specific Cases and Testimonies

Wynell Gilbert noted as much when she testified at the same 2010 congressional hearing as Linda Pee. “I know firsthand the difference a teacher can make in the classroom without having to resort to the use of corporal punishment,” Gilbert said in her written testimony.

Procedures and Regulations

When a student receives corporal punishment, it may take place in a classroom, an office, or a hallway, depending on the district’s policy. It may be the student’s teacher administering corporal punishment, or it may be a principal, assistant principal, or coach. States can also limit who has the authority to administer corporal punishment. When corporal punishment occurs, policy may dictate another faculty member serve as a witness. In Georgia, for example, corporal punishment must be “administered in the presence of a principal or assistant principal, or the[ir] designee.”

To prepare for corporal punishment, students may be asked to stand against a wall, bend over a chair or desk, or even get on their knees. In some schools, where a paddle is used, the student may be asked to pull his or her pants tightly across the buttocks to ensure thick or loose clothing doesn’t dampen the impact.

Contradictory Legal Approaches

The contradictory approach state laws take to corporal punishment - allowing it in schools and prohibiting it nearly everywhere else - is not uncommon. In Florida, for example, licensed out-of-home caregivers, such as foster families and group home and runaway shelter operators, are explicitly forbidden from using corporal punishment. In Alabama, corporal punishment is broadly permitted in school. Mississippi law similarly notes that an educator’s use of corporal punishment “does not constitute negligence or child abuse.” The state, however, unambiguously bans its use in similar settings as Alabama, including in foster care and child care facilities.

Negative Outcomes of Corporal Punishment

There’s no shortage of literature describing the negative outcomes of corporal punishment. A 2016 review of more than 250 studies found the practice linked to a range of negative consequences, from physical and emotional harm to poor academic performance. What’s more, the practice fails to teach students social, emotional, and behavioral skills.

Corporal punishment in school has resulted in bruising, muscle damage, broken bones, and other conditions requiring students to seek medical attention. Corporal punishment also risks disrupting the recovery of students with a history of trauma, neglect, and abuse.

Corporal punishment damages student-teacher relationships by eroding trust and respect. Education Secretary John King urged governors and school leaders in states where corporal punishment is allowed to end a practice he said would be considered “criminal assault or battery” against an adult.

Alternative Disciplinary Approaches

The Society for Adolescent Medicine recommends developing "a milieu of effective communication, in which the teacher displays an attitude of respect for the students", as well as instruction that is stimulating and appropriate to student's abilities, various nonviolent behavior modification techniques, and involving students and parents in making decisions about school matters such as rules and educational goals.

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