Navigating Higher Education: Understanding the Experiences of First-Generation College Students

The landscape of higher education is often viewed as a realm of equal opportunity and a vehicle for upward social mobility. However, the experiences of first-generation college students reveal a more nuanced reality. These students, who are the first in their families to attend college, face unique challenges and opportunities as they navigate the complexities of academic life. This article delves into the various facets of the first-generation college student experience, exploring their characteristics, the obstacles they encounter, and the support systems that can help them thrive.

Defining First-Generation College Students

The most common definition of a first-generation college student is a student with neither parent having earned a baccalaureate degree. This definition is used by the United States Department of Education and also by the University of California and California State University systems. A different definition used by the California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office identifies first-generation students as neither parent having attended college. Other institutions might define the term by including students whose parents have a high school diploma or less or whose parents have some post-secondary experience but no four-year degree.

The differences between the ways first-generation students are identified have been highlighted in the Academic Senate for California Community Colleges (2023) paper Changes to Assessment, Placement, and Instruction in Mathematics and in a Cal Matters article (Echelman, 2023). Given the widespread focus on student success outcomes, equity-focused data disaggregation, and demographic information collected from students when they apply to colleges, institutions need to have a clear definition of a first-generation student. Understanding the definitions is important not only for students but also for faculty and researchers when they interpret outcomes data such as the student likelihood to apply to college and succeed in college.

Complexities arise when colleges are surveying students and asking if they identify as first-generation college students because whether the surveys are asking if one or both parents attended college or whether college means a two-year or four-year institution is not clear. Furthermore, defining parents for non-traditional families or for current or former foster youth suggests a need to use more inclusive language on student-facing materials. California also has many students whose parents were immigrants or who themselves are immigrants: dreamers, refugees, migrants, and undocumented individuals. For these students, whether the term first-generation applies to them if one or both parents have degrees from abroad is also unclear. Consequently, a clarification of the definition of students as first-generation is needed. Clear student-facing definitions of first-generation are important for students trying to access services meant to support their success. Local scholarships may cite first-generation as a criterion or desired recipient for a need-based scholarship.

Demographics and Backgrounds

First-generation college students often come from diverse backgrounds and experiences. A review of the literature on first-generation college students published by the Texas Guaranteed Student Loan Corporation (TGSLC) cites a 2001 study which reported that 31% of first-generation college students were 24 years of age or older. A 1998 study cited in the same review reported that 13% of first-generation college students were 30 years of age or older. Additionally, 46% did not start attending college immediately after high school graduation. According to the NCES report for the 2011-2012 school year, the share of undergraduate full-time employed undergraduate students whose parents' highest education level was high school or less was 38.0%. This is slightly higher than the share of undergraduate students who did not work while enrolled whose parents' highest education level was high school or less (34.1%). The NCES report by Redford and Hoyer following students who were high school sophomores in 2002 states that 76% of first-generation college students first enrolled in public, 9% in private, and 16% in for-profit institutions. Regarding the selectively of institutions where first-generation college students tend to enroll, the same NCES report states that 52% enrolled in 2-year institutions whose selectively is unclassified.

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Cultural Mismatch and Academic Disadvantage

Stephens et al. observe that the institution of higher education in the United States of America is popularly viewed as an environment of equal opportunity regardless of social class background and a means for social mobility. Indeed, a 2002 report by Connie Ayala and Al Striplen cited in the TGSLC literature review asserts that first-generation college students are involved in a "deliberate attempt" to achieve upward social, economic, or occupational mobility. However, research by Jean Phinney et al. revealed that a college education plays a significant role in students' potential for social mobility and status. Stephens et al. show that working class and middle class societies have differing cultural capital and norms, and these differences are present in the way each class approaches and values higher education. The "cultural mismatch" between the college environment and first-generation college students' working-class backgrounds can be a source of academic disadvantage. Middle class students are typically socialized to value independence, and they are encouraged to approach college with the intention to "separate and distinguish themselves from their parents…, to find themselves, to develop their voices, to follow their passions, and to influence the world". On the other hand, working class students are often socialized to value interdependence, such as by "adjusting and responding to others' needs" and "being a part of a community", and may view college through a lens of interdependence as well. The article shows how American first and second tier universities included in their study do indeed reflect the middle class values of independence, creating a mismatch between the environment familiar to students of working-class backgrounds and the college environment.

Financial Challenges

A problem that first-generation students face, more frequently than other students is lack of finance with the constant growing cost of college. The cost of college often increases as students move through college.

Stress and Imposter Syndrome

According to a primary research study, first-generation female students are experiencing high amounts of stress that is difficult to manage which can affect their progress in academics. Coming from this doubly disadvantaged background, first-generation women face adversity related to both their gender and first-generation status in academia.

Research has found that first-generation college students experience of imposter syndrome (IP) at higher rates than their continuing-generation peers. Initially coined as the "impostor phenomenon" by Pauline Clance and Joe Langford in 1978 to describe the "internal experience of intellectual phoniness" among high-achieving women in the workplace, impostor syndrome has been attributed as the reason that many first-generation college students feel that they do not belong in postsecondary education and/or do not have the skills or intelligence to complete their studies. First-generation college students who struggle with impostor syndrome often cite feeling that their classes are highly competitive and that their continuing-generation peers may "find out" that they are not as capable, as skilled, or as intelligent as they may be perceived. IP perceptions can be influenced depending on the student's familial background. According to research, first-generation students are generally less academically prepared for college because they do not have the guidance by their parents. In The Journal of Higher Education, Ernest Pascarella et al. reiterate the fact that first-generation students have a hard time completing their higher education due to their constant struggle of comparing themselves with their counterpart, students who have parents with a degree. The feelings of inadequacy or feeling like a fraud can be overpowering and mentally limit a student from achieving their best. When first-generation students can't find a support system at home, they feel lonely and go into a state of attrition. Impostor syndrome has been observed to have detrimental effects on the academic, social, and emotional wellbeing of first-generation college students. Educators and institutions can help these students overcome their fears with the right resources if they were put into place. Joel Bothello and Thomas J. Roulet, authors of The Imposter Syndrome, or the Mis-Representation of Self in Academic Life, state, "higher education establishments need to change their incentive systems.

Faulty Expectations and Identity Negotiation

Olson cites how FGCS have been found to enter college with the expectation that it will lead to a high-paying or prestigious job, which are not guaranteed outcomes. Brooks-Terry (1998) explores FGCS go into college with faulty expectations and struggle with "double assignment", which entail handling their courses while also learning and understanding the college lifestyle in general. Orbe (2008) explains that FGCS' understanding of the college culture becomes a "multidimensional identity negotiation" against their home culture. FGCS have to acknowledge how they change in college while also relating that to their experiences with family and friends. Additionally, Olson addresses the obstacles the FGCS faces when wanting to move out. London (1989) explains how families of FGCS assign roles to keep them grounded to their families. Families may delegate the FGCS as the example for other members of the family, or keep them at home so they can remain reliant on family. Furthermore, Olson applies social cognitive career theory (SCCT) when exploring self-efficacy in more depth. Bandura (1986) says that self-efficacy and success of FGCS may be "learned" by watching their peers fail in college. It is likely that their perspectives are not accurate, and their families lack of education experience negatively reinforces the notion that they will not succeed.

Family Achievement Guilt

Studies on family achievement guilt have reported that minority students are more likely to be the first in their family to attend college than non-minority students and that they are prone to feelings of guilt over prior generations' inability to pursue further education due to a variety of factors. As a result, these students are more likely to attempt to hide or downplay their scholastic achievements, which can lead to the students becoming depressed. The students living on what they perceive as "luxurious campuses" have also reported feeling guilt, particularly if their family members continue to experience suffering. Covarrbuias et al. Most first-generation college students (FGCS) feel the guilt of achieving great success in college because most of their parents did not even finish elementary school, middle school, high school or any post secondary education. They face unique psychological challenges according to associate professor of Education Linda Banks-Santilli in an article published in The Washington Post. This is something that is common among minority Latinx families. The parents of first-generation college students chose to sacrifice their education to come to another country to find better opportunities for themselves and for their future families. With that being said, some of FGCS are also looked down upon because their relatives are not getting or taking advantage of the same opportunities. Although some relatives are supportive, others are envious and judgmental and may be quick to judge when they see their cousins or other relatives taking advantage of the opportunities given to them.

The Positive Aspects of Being a First-Generation College Student

Despite the challenges, first-generation college students also possess unique strengths and perspectives. Through interviews with first-generation college students older than 25 at a small liberal arts college, researchers Kathleen Byrd and Ginger Macdonald found that these students considered their age to be a positive contributor to their time management and self-advocacy skills. Having more experience navigating life and work contributed to their confidence. Some interviewees expressed that their self-advocacy skills in particular had helped to compensate for what they lacked in background knowledge, or cultural capital, of the college system in areas such as financial aid, student advising services, and student-professor relationships. Interviewees who were also parents cited their children as sources of motivation in their academic pursuits.

“Being a first-generation college student means the world to me,” Hazen said. “I hope to show my family that everything that I did through this SNHU program was for them,” she said. For Yasmine Molinari ’22, who earned a bachelor’s in psychology from SNHU, the accomplishment was a tribute to her mother. “I had to grab this first-generation stole today because I am very proud to be able to accomplish this,” she said after walking at Commencement. Molinari said she plans to use her degree to give back to others.

“It feels good to be first generation,” said Jerron Trice ‘24, who graduated from SNHU with a bachelor’s in business administration. “I believe I'm breaking a cycle in my family and my lineage and starting a new cycle of college graduates from starting with me on going forward.” Mars Girolimon '21 '23G is a staff writer at Southern New Hampshire University where they earned their bachelor's and master's, both in English and creative writing. In addition to their work in higher education, Girolimon's short fiction is published in the North American Review, So It Goes by The Kurt Vonnegut Museum & Library, X-R-A-Y and more.

Support Systems and Resources

Recognizing the unique needs of first-generation college students, many institutions have implemented programs and resources to support their success. The Institute for Higher Education (September 2012), provides an issue brief and describes how to support FGCS through classroom-based practices. First, faculty can be key allies as they are the key point of contact for students in the classroom. When faculty are encouraged by their institutions to uphold strong leadership roles in FGCS initiatives, the results are extremely beneficial. The issue brief has a very helpful graphic that breaks down the strategies faculty can use to help students. Additionally, the Institute for Higher Education (2012) identifies how it is crucial for institutions to examine barriers faced by FGCS and to redesign their curriculum to better serve these students. Some possible approaches involve educators implementing tutoring programs and proving supplemental services to better serve this community. They can create an initiative to train faculty and instructors specially, while keeping in consideration the cultural obstacles these students may face. By identifying and integrating cultural characteristics into the way they serve FGCS, they are being more inclusive and creating stronger relationships between the students and faculty. Because many Minority-Serving Institutions (MSI's) don't have a strong grasp on how many FGCS are on their campuses, they may not understand how to serve this community. The Institute for Higher Education (2012) emphasizes the need to use data (also known as evidence-based solutions) to support the efforts to strengthen programs to help FGCS. Some methods include primarily identifying the number of FGCS and the qualitative and quantitative approaches to better serving the population. Schools can also use research models to not only design, but track the most effective practices that provide the utmost opportunities for FGCS. Although there are programs intact to help FGCS, The Council for Opportunity in Education (COE) states that these programs can only serve 11 percent of students. The Institute for Higher Education also points out the obstacles that these programs may not be implemented early enough and may not necessarily be targeted only towards FGCS. If counselors, teachers, and administrators understand the cultural aspect that affects FGCS, they will have the tools necessary to take a holistic approach in proving these students with the specific help they need.

On SNHU's campus, we have wonderful support available for first-gen students," Zlotkowski said. "Acknowledge that you are on an exciting and unique journey," Winfield said. He said your academic advisor is your advocate and can support you through any challenges you face while earning your degree. Zlotkowski recommended connecting with your instructors and other first-gen students, too. "Know that we are all here supporting and celebrating you," she said. If you take advantage of available resources and stay motivated, the finish line could soon be within reach.

Student support programs like the Extended Opportunity Programs and Services (EOPS) codified in California Education Code §§69640 and 69648 and in California Code of Regulations Title 5 §56200 et seq. are equity-focused and are designed to support disproportionately-impacted students, including first-generation students. Title 5 §56280 specifies that special priority must be given to underrepresented students who are first-generation when colleges recruit students to EOPS programs. Even though the process by which colleges or districts recruit into EOPS is a local matter, Title 5 56270 et seq. Recently enacted SB444 (Newman, 2023) encourages California community colleges to establish a Math, Engineering, and Science Achievement (MESA) program. These programs seek to increase the number of economically and educationally disadvantaged students pursuing science, technology, engineering, and math baccalaureate degrees. Many of these students are likely to identify as first-generation. Regardless of the definition, each student who identifies as or is identified as first-generation may face certain disadvantages compared to students who are not first-generation. In a system of higher education with such a strong focus on access and equitable outcomes, colleges may consider ways to strategically expand support services to the broadest group of students possible.

Factors Impacting Degree Completion

DeAngelo (et al., 2011) explains how prior academic achievements impact degree completion. These are explored through SAT scores and high school grades. FGCS with a higher-grade average in high school and SAT composite scores are more likely to graduate in 4 years. If these students don't understand the impact of their SAT scores and GPAs on their likelihood to graduate, they are not predisposed to take them seriously, while college experienced students know that based on their previous knowledge. DeAngelo provides statistics on graduation rates among FGCS and non-FGCS in a framework of four, five, and six years as well as a table that breaks down the degree attainment by race/ethnicity. In a 2001 US Department of Education report, Susan Choy explains that in order to becoming a college student requires a student proceed through multiple steps, starting with aspiring to earn a bachelor's degree, then achieving at least minimal academic preparation, then taking the SAT or ACT test, and finally, applying to a four-year institution. Her report shows that as a students' parents' education level increases, so does the students' likelihood of completing each step along the way to enrollment at a four-year institution. Choy also reports that the likelihood that a students will enroll in a four-year higher education institution is highly correlated with taking more advanced math courses in high school. Regarding the last step in the college enrollment process, application, the literature review by Carmen Tym et al. Because of a lack of experience, first-generation college students' parents do not always understand what the academic requirements are to attend a four-year college; therefore they cannot prepare their children for admission to such universities or the stress of the college experience. First-generation past students now parents would advise their children different from how they were advised when they were college students, with the advice they wish they were given by their parents. Students must rely on their teachers and counselors to place them on the correct track in order to enroll in any form of post-secondary education.

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