Adult Learning Systems: Definitions, Theories, and Applications

Adult learning is the process of continuing one’s education beyond traditional schooling. It encompasses various forms of learning that adults engage in, from basic literacy to advanced professional development. This article explores the definition of adult learning systems, delving into the theories, principles, and challenges associated with this field, and how these impact both educational and corporate organizations, as well as education practitioners.

Defining Adult Learning

Adult learning refers to the education and training pursued by mature learners. The Department of Education defines adult learners as individuals aged 25 and older, constituting a significant portion of the student population. Adult education is when adults gain new attitudes, knowledge, skills, or values through systematic educating activities. It includes any form of learning adults engage in beyond traditional schooling, from basic literacy to developing self-actualization as a lifelong learner.

Three major characteristics comprise the definition of adult learning: learner-centeredness, self-directed learning, and a humanist philosophy. Learner centeredness is the principle that refers to how the learner’s needs and wants are central to the process of teaching, while self-directed learning touches on the responsibility and involvement of learners in their education. For its part, humanistic adult education philosophy is anchored on personal development as the key to continued education. It facilitates learning by promising learners of personal growth and development as a learning outcome. In other words, the humanistic approach to adult learning refers to how learners assume the responsibility to learn

Adult learning can be for vocational, social, recreational, or self-development. It can also be a form of social justice to provide accessible education to the disadvantaged.

The Significance of Adult Learning

Individuals pursue adult learning for a variety of reasons, including enhancing employment prospects, developing personally or professionally, and obtaining transferrable skills, such as critical thinking. Adult learning also contributes to improving social cohesion and promotes active citizenship. It also enhances the competitiveness of businesses and European economies.

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The recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and the digital and green transitions have accelerated changes in how we live, learn and work. People need to update their knowledge, skills and competences to fill the gap between their education and training and the demands of a rapidly changing labor market.

In fast-developing countries, the qualifications of adults fall far behind those of young people, and may no longer match the requirements of a developed economy. This implies strong potential demand for the education and training of adults.

A Brief History of Adult Learning Theories

Early studies about adult learning began in the mid-1960s when educators began exploring different theories, models, and frameworks that explain how adult learners can be distinguished from children. In the early decades of the century, behavioral psychologists conducted the earliest research in adult learning. Early studies defined learning as a behavioral response triggered by the learner’s interaction with the environment. Although these principles are still present today in training programs and evidence-based practices in the corporate, military, instructional technology, and medical and health arenas, the humanistic perspective on learning resulted in adult education becoming a recognized field of practice.

By the mid-20th century, three major adult learning techniques or theories have emerged: andragogy, self-directed learning, and transformative learning. These methodologies are firmly lodged in the humanistic approach to learning, which emphasizes personal growth and development as the key focus of education.

Key Adult Learning Theories

Adult learning theories play a pivotal role in the design and implementation of education programs, including healthcare professional programs. Adult learning theories have been divided in the literature into the following categories: instrumental, humanistic, transformative, social, motivational, reflective, and constructivist learning theories. These learning theories are derived from psychological theories of learning, and their categorization is influenced by the broad constructivist views of andragogy, indicating that learning is the process of constructing new knowledge on the foundations of existing knowledge.

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Andragogy: The Art and Science of Teaching Adults

Developed in 1968 by Malcolm Knowles, andragogy is a term that refers to the concept of adult learning and how it differs from children’s education. Knowles defines andragogy as “the art and science of teaching adults." Knowles argued that adults are differently experienced, motivated, oriented, and in need to learn, than children.

Knowles believed that andragogy is premised on five key assumptions: self-concept, adult learner experience, readiness to learn, orientation of learning, and motivation to learn. Today, the education programs for adult training are still built around andragogy-instead of education being teacher-centric, much of the curriculum’s focus is given to students and their learning needs.

Self-concept: As people grow older, they become more independent and turn to a more self-directed learning approach. Unlike children who are dependent on others for learning and understanding, adults have more control and responsibility over their personal education and progression.
Adult learner experience: Over time, adults gain innumerable experiences that deepen their resources for learning, placing them in a position where they can use their experiences as a useful tool in self-education. Based on this assumption, adult education programs must usually center around experimental tasks and open discussions based on what learners already know.
Readiness to learn: As mature learners take on various roles in society, their readiness or motivation to learn becomes oriented toward the skills necessary for these roles. Whether they’re an employee, parent, spouse, or citizen, a large part of their readiness to learn is directed toward these roles.
Orientation of learning: For children, the application of a subject is postponed in later life, and their orientation of learning is usually subject-centered. The things they learn at school are not normally applied to real-life problems, and they must wait until they’re older and encounter a need for the skills and knowledge they acquired. This is in contrast to Knowles’ adult learning theory, where the application of learning becomes immediate and more problem-centered as the learner matures. When adults encounter issues and complications, they immediately apply their knowledge to solve those problems.
Motivation to learn: According to Knowles, adults are motivated to learn internally. Their desire for career growth and professional development drives their motivation to pursue education.

It is important to note that the use of the term andragogy has been criticized because some principles of andragogy are similar to that of children’s learning, which makes the learning a lifelong “continuum” with different purposes at different stages.

Self-Directed Learning: Taking Control of Your Education

When individuals pursue education to gain a new skill or learn certain information, they often seek the help of a professional instructor who can supervise the entire learning process. However, another alternative for learners is to assume the primary responsibility for initiating, planning, and conducting the learning project. Such behavior is referred to as self-education, self-instruction, or self-directed learning.

Knowles defined self-directed learning as “a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes." In essence, self-directed learning is an informal learning process that takes place outside the traditional classroom setting. In this approach, the learner decides about the method, content, resources, and evaluation of learning programs. By determining their needs, setting goals, and seeking resources, learners assume full responsibility for the learning process.

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Knowles (1975) cites three reasons why adult learners turn to self-directed learning. First, individuals who take the initiative in learning can learn more and better things compared to learners whose education is forced upon them. Another reason is that self-directed learning is a natural process that takes place in an individual’s psychological development. Lastly, developments in the education sector put a heavier emphasis on independent learning processes.

Training managers, instructional designers, and HR professionals use the self-directed learning approach to facilitate a robust and sustainable learning culture across various industries. With the younger population dominating today’s workforce, the concept of self-directed learning is increasingly becoming more popular.

Transformative Learning: Changing Perspectives

Originally developed by Jack Mezirow, an American sociologist, transformative learning theory refers to how learning changes how individuals think about themselves and their surroundings. He describes it as “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference to make them [learners] more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change". Transformative learning challenges students’ underlying assumptions and opinions about the world. In doing so, learners become more encouraged to apply critical thinking when forming their beliefs and judgment.

Transformative learning involves three stages, the first stage involves experiencing a confusing issue or problem and reflecting on previous perspectives about the event. The second is engaging in critical evaluation and self-reflection on the experience, which requires metacognitive thinking.

Other Significant Learning Theories

Behavioral Theories: Focus on a stimulus in the environment leading to an individual’s change of behavior, one consequence of which is learning. The behavioral theories are used in an undergraduate human physiology laboratory course for health students where students are provided with clear protocols to complete lab experiments, and an opportunity for immediate feedback through clicker questions to indicate how successfully the instructions were followed.
Cognitive Learning Theories: Focuses on the learner’s internal environment and cognitive structures, rather than the context or external environment. Cognitive learning theories are associated with mental and psychological processes to facilitate learning by assigning meaning to events such as insight, information processing, perceptions, reflection, metacognition, and memory.
Experiential Learning: Learning and knowledge construction are facilitated through interaction with the authentic environment. Kolb believed that learning and knowledge construction are facilitated through experience and described the learning cycle as having four phases: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Experiential learning is a skill that provides lifelong learning and encourages a student’s adaptation to the practical environment, such as in pharmacy education.
Humanistic Learning: Focuses on human freedom and dignity to achieve full potential. They suggest that learning is self-directed, and that adults can plan, manage, and assess their own learning to accomplish self-actualization, self-fulfillment, self-motivation values, goals, and independence in their learning.
Social Learning Theories: Integrate the concept of behavior modeling with those of cognitive learning, so that the understanding of the performance of a task is strengthened. Social learning theories focus on social interaction, the person, context, community, and the desired behavior, as the main facilitators of learning.
Reflective Learning: Imply that adult learning is associated with two fundamental elements: motivation and reflection. Schön suggested that there are two types of reflection: reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. While reflection-on-action allows learners to evaluate the level of relevance or rigor of the processes after they happen, reflection-in-action allows learners to reflect while the activity is happening. This leads the learners to test their own knowledge, through investigation. Reflection helps students make meaning of complex situations and enables them to learn from experience in authentic practice. The application of reflective theories of learning in a second-year undergraduate pharmacy curriculum allowed the integration of theory and practice, enhanced the critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-directed learning of students.
Constructivist Learning: Individuals construct new knowledge through the interaction between their previous skills and knowledge, the skills and knowledge gained from social interaction with peers and teachers, and social activities. The constructivist learning theory has guided medical education strategies, such as group discussions, journal clubs, course portfolio development, and critical appraisal.

Adult Learning in Healthcare Professional Education

An understanding of adult learning theories (ie, andragogy) in healthcare professional education programs is important for several reasons. First, educational philosophies and theories are an essential part of evidence-based educational practice. Healthcare professional educators should ideally be familiar with a range of learning theories to use the most appropriate approach for the teaching they deliver, based on the educational setting, context, learners’ characteristics, the purpose of the teaching, potential for use, and integration of existing resources. The significance of theoretical considerations in professional healthcare professional education was stressed by Benner et al who argued that theoretical knowledge is formed by practice and consequently influences practice.

Unfortunately, important learning theories are not consistently implemented in the educational designs and practices of healthcare professional education programs. The reasons for this lack of consideration and implementation seem to vary between different countries and have potentially led to variable outcomes.

Applying Adult Learning Theory to Corporate Learning

Adult learning strategies and theories take into account the distinct principles that have proven effective in steering adult learners to expand what they know, enhance their problem-solving skills, achieve their goals, and find their meaningful places in their respective societies.

Challenges in Adult Learning

Understanding adult learning theory also means recognizing the common barriers adult learners face.

Lack of time: Many adults juggle full-time jobs, parenting responsibilities, and care for other dependents, leaving little room for academic pursuits. These demands can make it challenging to find consistent time for studying, attending classes, or completing assignments.
Self-doubt: Many adult learners feel they are too old to return to school or that their chance has passed. This can lead to hesitation, low confidence, and fear of failure. But education is valuable at any age, and learners with 5 or 50 years left in the workforce still deserve the opportunity to pursue their passions and build meaningful careers.
Neuroplasticity: As we age, plasticity decreases, which can make it harder for adults to learn new concepts or adapt to unfamiliar environments. Still, these challenges aren't insurmountable.
Financial barriers: Expenses like tuition, textbooks, and time away from work can create significant strain, making it harder to pursue a degree.
Contradiction: Some of what adult learners encounter in their education journey may challenge or contradict their prior knowledge or beliefs. Embracing these shifts in worldview, opinions, or understanding requires openness and mental flexibility.
Lack of support: Earning a degree without a strong support system can feel overwhelming, especially for adult students balancing multiple responsibilities.

Despite these challenges, adult learners often bring determination, focus, and a strong sense of purpose to their education. Recognizing these obstacles is the first step in creating programs and support systems that help them thrive. Institutions that offer flexible schedules, mentorship, mental health resources, and financial guidance can make a meaningful difference.

Factors Influencing Participation in Adult Education

Previous research findings suggest that as adults get older, they are less likely to participate in AE (adult education). Reason of why older adults' participation declined relates mainly to lack of promotion and support. In many OECD and European countries, employers often support their workers to attend in AE programs since they consider that workers with higher-educated and skilled are crucial indicators of development for companies. Therefore, older adults cannot get promotions from their employers because of the gradual loss of seniority, learning ability and performance. Since older adults are rarely offered a promotion from their employers, and the cost would be an obstacle for participation, they are unable to take the courses even if they wanted to take part in programs.

Women's low participation is mainly resulted from family burdens and lack of financial support. However, an opposite tendency can be observed in the US.

Educational attainment is determined as the most important factor in predicting participation in AE. The data found those with low educational background were less likely to participate in OECD countries. Reason of low or non-participation of the less-educated can be explained from perspectives of individual and employers. Individual point illustrated that low self-confidence regarding the learning, which mainly derived from previous bad educational experiences, could be a major obstacle for the less-educated. Apart from low self-confidence, those less-educated might not perceive their need of participation or might actually not have a need to participate. Yet, employers' view was apparent that they tended to support high-educated because they were more trainable than the low-educated.

Finally, adults who come from a better socio-economic background tend to participate more in AE programs.

Summarizing above findings, people, those are young and men, with high levels of education, high-status of jobs are more likely to take part in any form of education and training. On the contrary, typical non-participants tend to be women, older, less educated, and coming from poor socio-economic backgrounds.

Deterrents to Adult Learning

Deterrents are characteristics that explain why adults respond in negative manners to participate in education and learning. Deterrents faced by adults are multifaceted, including both external and internal factors. For the unemployed, it is obvious that cost can hinder their participation in education. And those lacking education and skills must be paid low salaries. In this way, cost could be the most influential deterrent. Even employed adults seem not wanting to invest money for a course, but they could attend if their employers supported them financially.

For the time barrier, most adults involved in studies reported that they could not participate in educational activities due to lack of time. Adults tended to say that they were busy with their daily routines. Apart from cost and time deterrents, family and job commitments are other most commonly cited deterrents.

After above-mentioned deterrents, another mostly reported deterrent is irrelevant and inadequate supplies of trainings/activities. Deterrents related to an individual's internal issues tend to be reported in lowest rate. Moreover, perceived deterrents are differentiated into social groups. Johnstone and Rivera found that older adults faced more dispositional barriers such as low self-confidence and too late for being learners. Also, younger adults and women were more experienced with situational barriers such as cost and child care arrangements. Meanwhile, research illustrates that understanding the motivations and barriers of adult learners can increase their enrollment and retention.

The Role of Lifelong Learning

Lifelong learning represents an essential dimension of adult education, enabling learners to continually adapt and grow personally and professionally throughout their lives. As global industries evolve and demand new skill sets, adults increasingly recognize the importance of continuous education to remain competitive in the workforce and achieve personal fulfillment.

Flexible online learning platforms now play a pivotal role in making lifelong learning accessible to more individuals. Programs that cater to professional development, skill expansion, or personal growth are often designed to fit into the schedules of adult learners who juggle significant responsibilities. Moreover, the emphasis on lifelong education encourages the development of cross-disciplinary skills that are highly sought after in today’s job market. Adults are exposed to diverse knowledge areas, including new technologies, critical thinking strategies, and innovative problem-solving methods, which they can directly apply to real-world scenarios.

The EU's Support for Adult Learning

The European Union actively supports adult learning through various initiatives and policies. The right to education, training, and lifelong learning is enshrined in the European Pillar of Social Rights. The European Skills Agenda for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness, and resilience includes ambitious actions to help people develop their skills throughout life.

A Resolution adopted by the Council of the European Union (EU) on a new European Agenda for Adult Learning highlights the need to significantly increase adult participation in formal, non-formal, and informal learning. The new European Agenda for Adult learning outlines a vision of how adult learning should develop in Europe by 2030 in five priority areas: governance of adult learning, supply and take-up of lifelong learning opportunities, accessibility and flexibility, quality, equity, inclusion and success in adult learning, and the green and digital transitions and related skill needs.

Career Guidance in Adult Learning

Career guidance describes the services which help people of any age to manage their careers and to make educational, training, and occupational choices that are meaningful for them. It helps people to reflect on their ambitions, interests, qualifications, skills and talents and to relate this knowledge about who they are to who they might become in life and work.

Resources and Support for Adult Learners

Department of Education and support programs that provide adult education, literacy, and English language acquisition services. While primarily known for supporting undergraduate students, the Pell Grant can be used by eligible adult learners attending accredited institutions to pursue a variety of programs, including adult education and workforce development programs. Some regions offer Adult Skills Grants to support working adults who are seeking to advance their skills through training, certification, or further education. states offer their own grants for adult learners, often through community colleges or state-sponsored adult education programs.

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