Marcus Aurelius: Education and Influences on an Emperor's Philosophy

Marcus Aurelius, a Roman Emperor renowned for his philosophical insights, lived in the second century. His personal reflections, compiled in "Meditations," offer a glimpse into his Stoic philosophy and his quest for happiness, virtue, and purpose. This article delves into the education and influences that shaped Marcus Aurelius, examining how they contributed to his development as both a ruler and a philosopher.

A Man of Many Names: The Early Life of Marcus

Born on April 26, 121 A.D. in Rome, Marcus Aurelius’s name evolved alongside his changing familial status. Initially known as Marcus Annis Verus, Marcus Annis Catilius Severus, or Marcus Catilius Severus Annius Verus, his name transformed upon adoption by Antoninus Pius, Hadrian’s successor, to Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar, marking him as heir to the empire. His final name, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, remained until his death.

Noble Roots: Family Background and Lineage

Marcus's family background was as noble as they came. He was of Italo-Hispanic descent on his father’s side and, as such, was a member of the Aurelii, who were based in Roman Spain. The Annia gens is also of Italian descent, with the Annii Veri having risen through the Roman ranks from the 1st century AD. Marcus was related directly to Marcus Annius Verus (I), his great-grandfather, an ex-praetor, and Marcus Annius Verus (II), his grandfather and unofficial adoptive father, who was a patrician.

His lineage connected him to the Nerva-Antonine dynasty through his grandmother, Rupilia, linking him to Emperors Trajan and Hadrian through Hadrian’s wife Sabina. Her wealth, derived from brickworks and the Horti Domitia Calvillae/Lucillae villa on the Caelian hill, played a significant role in Marcus's upbringing. He fondly remembered this villa, referring to it as ‘My Caelian,’ as he was born and raised there.

Upon being chosen as heir to Antoninus Pius, Marcus adopted the gen name Aurelia, further solidifying his connection to the Aurelii Fulvi of Sabine and Italo-Gallic origin.

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Educating an Emperor: The Shaping of a Leader's Mind

Marcus’ formal education was instilled through several private tutors as befits his aristocratic standing; his adoptive father, Marcus Annius Verus (II), through patria potestas authority when Marcus Annius Verus (III) died around 124, oversaw his grandson’s upbringing. Marcus’ education taught him to be of good character and to avoid bad temper, something he recognized as being of great value, and he thanked his grandfather for his wisdom.

Diognetus, a painting master, introduced him to philosophy and a philosophic way of life, leading Marcus to adopt the robes and habits of a philosopher in 132 A.D.. He wore a rough Greek cloak while studying and slept on the ground, practices he later abandoned due to his mother's concerns.

Other tutors, including Alexander of Cotiaeum, Trosius Aper, and Tuticius Proculus, taught him Latin, with Marcus crediting Alexander for his literary styling evident in "Meditations". From A.D. 136, Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus (Greek) and Marcus Cornelius Fronto (Latin) furthered his education.

Late in 136 A.D., Marcus assumed the toga virilis and began oratory training. After Emperor Hadrian chose Marcus’ intended father-in-law, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, as his successor while convalescing in Tivoli, Marcus’ life changed dramatically.

The Philosopher King: Influences and Stoic Philosophy

Marcus Aurelius was an emperor by profession and philosopher by way of life. Aurelius searched for answers to metaphysical and ethical questions, such as: how can we achieve happiness?; how can I be a good person?; what is my purpose?

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His "Meditations" provides insight into his Stoic philosophy, influenced by Epictetus. The text serves as a series of practical philosophical exercises designed to integrate philosophical theory into daily life.

Stoicism and Epictetus

Marcus’ reputation as a philosopher rests upon one work, the Meditations. The Meditations take the form of a personal notebook and were probably written while Marcus was on campaign in central Europe, c. C.E. 171-175. The entries appear to be in no particular order and may simply be in the original order of composition. The repetition of themes and the occasional groups of quotations from other authors (see, for example, Med. 4.46, 11.33-39) add to this impression. Book One, however, is somewhat different from the rest of the text and may well have been written separately (a plan for it may be discerned in Med. The first recorded mention of the Meditations is by Themistius in C.E. 364. The current Greek title-ta eis heauton (‘to himself’)-derives from a manuscript now lost and may be a later addition (it is first recorded c. 900 by Arethas). Beyond the Meditations there also survives part of a correspondence between Marcus and his rhetoric teacher Fronto, probably dating from earlier in Marcus’ life (c. C.E. 138-166), discovered as a palimpsest in 1815.

According to tradition, Marcus was a Stoic. His ancient biographer, Julius Capitolinus, describes him as such. Marcus also makes reference to a number of Stoics by whom he was taught and, in particular, mentions Rusticus from whom he borrowed a copy of the works of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus (Med. 1.7). However, nowhere in the Meditations does Marcus explicitly call himself a Stoic. This may simply reflect the likelihood that Marcus was writing only for himself rather than attempting to define himself to an audience.

Marcus was clearly familiar with the Discourses of Epictetus, quoting them a number of times (see Med. 11.33-38). Epictetus’ fame in the second century is noted by a number of ancient sources, being hailed as the greatest of the Stoics (Aulus Gellius 1.2.6) and more popular than Plato (Origen Contra Celsus 6.2). If Marcus felt drawn towards Stoicism, then Epictetus would surely have stood out as the most important Stoic of the time.

Central to Epictetus’ philosophy is his account of three topoi, or areas of study. These three areas of training correspond to the three types of philosophical discourse referred to by earlier Stoics; the physical, the ethical, and the logical (see Diogenes Laertius 7.39). For Epictetus, it is not enough merely to discourse about philosophy. The student of philosophy should also engage in practical training designed to digest philosophical principals, transforming them into actions. Only this will enable the apprentice philosopher to transform himself into the Stoic ideal of a wise person or sage (sophos).

The three topoi are:

Desire (orexis): Focused on physics, training desires in harmony with Nature, acknowledging the individual as part of a complex, interconnected system.
Impulse (hormê): Dedicated to ethics, translating ethical theories into actions, and training impulses to shape behavior.
Assent (sunkatathesis): Concentrated on logic, recognizing that impressions often include value-judgements, and learning to analyze and reject unwarranted judgements.

Marcus's "Meditations" reflects these principles, serving as a personal exercise to digest philosophical theories and transform his character.

The Meditations as a Philosophical Exercise

The Meditations certainly do not present philosophical theories similar to those that one can find in, say, the surviving works of Aristotle. Nor are they comparable to a theoretical treatise like the Elements of Ethics by the Stoic Hierocles, possibly a contemporary of Marcus. Nevertheless, the Meditations remain essentially a philosophical text. As has already been noted, the Meditations are a personal notebook, written by Marcus to himself and for his own use. They do not form a theoretical treatise designed to argue for a particular doctrine or conclusion; their function is different. In the Meditations Marcus engages in a series of philosophical exercises designed to digest philosophical theories, to transform his character or ‘dye his soul’ in the light of those theories (see, for example, Med. 5.16), and so to transform his behavior and his entire way of life. By reflecting upon philosophical ideas and, perhaps more importantly, writing them down, Marcus engages in a repetitive process designed to habituate his mind into a new way of thinking. This procedure is quite distinct from the construction of philosophical arguments and has a quite different function. Whereas the former is concerned with creating a particular philosophical doctrine, the latter is a practical exercise or training designed to assimilate that doctrine into one’s habitual modes of behavior. Following the account of three types of philosophical training outlined by Epictetus, Marcus reflects in the Meditations upon a medley of physical, ethical, and logical ideas. These written reflections constitute a second stage of philosophical education necessary after one has studied the philosophical theories (see, for example, Epictetus Discourses 1.26.3). By engaging in such written philosophical exercises Marcus attempts to transform his soul or inner disposition that will, in turn, alter his behavior.

The Point of View of the Cosmos

Of all the philosophical exercises in the Meditations the most prominent centers around what might be called ‘the point of view of the cosmos’. In a number of passages Marcus exhorts himself to overcome the limited perspective of the individual and experience the world from a cosmic perspective. You have the power to strip away many superfluous troubles located wholly in your judgement, and to possess a large room for yourself embracing in thought the whole cosmos, to consider everlasting time, to think of the rapid change in the parts of each thing, of how short it is from birth until dissolution, and how the void before birth and that after dissolution are equally infinite. (Med.

In passages such as this Marcus makes implicit reference to a number of Stoic theories. Here, for instance, the Stoic physics of flux inherited from Heraclitus is evoked. Perhaps more important though is the reference to one’s judgement and the claim that this is the source of human unhappiness. Following Epictetus, Marcus claims that all attributions of good or evil are the product of human judgements. As Epictetus put it, what upsets people are not things themselves but rather their judgements about things (see Handbook 5). According to Epictetus’ epistemological theory (to the extent that it can be reconstructed) the impressions that an individual receives and that appear to reflect the nature of things are in fact already composite. They involve not only a perception of some external object but also an almost involuntary and unconscious judgement about that perception. This judgement will be a product of one’s preconceptions and mental habits. It is this composite impression to which an individual grants or denies assent, creating a belief. Marcus’ personal reflections in the Meditations may be read as a series of written exercises aimed at analyzing his own impressions and rejecting his own unwarranted value judgements. Do not say more to yourself than the first impressions report. […] Abide always by the first impressions and add nothing of your own from within. (Med.

These ‘first impressions’ are impressions before a value judgement has been made. For Marcus, human well-being or happiness (eudaimonia) is entirely dependent upon correctly examining one’s impressions and judgements. For once one has overcome false value-judgements-for instance that wealth and social standing are valuable and that one should compete for them against others-one will experience the cosmos as a single living being (identified with God) rather than a site of conflict and destruction. The various limited modes of being may encounter many external obstacles to hinder their perfect realization, but there can be nothing that can frustrate Nature as a whole, since she embraces and contains within herself all modes of being.

Lessons from Antoninus: Shaping an Emperor's Character

Marcus also learned from Antoninus. Antoninus had a “liberal attitude to education,” Marcus’ biographer Frank McLynn writes. He thought a person should seek to be useful, “not just masters of their disciplines but also well versed in politics and the problems of the state.” Yet Antoninus was hardly a bookish nerd-he was active and attentive to the world around him.

Antoninus had a remarkable “unwavering adherence to decisions,” Marcus tells us. “Once he’d reach them,” there was no hesitation, only resolute action. On the emperor Hadrian’s deathbed, he summoned Antoninus. It was time to hand over the crown. Antoninus pushed back. With this “indifference to superficial honors” we’re told, Hadrian was certain he made the right decision in making Antoninus his heir. Marcus said he revered “His restrictions on acclamations-and all attempts to flatter him.” Imagine how powerful this was for Marcus when it came time for him to assume the throne.

Marcus liked the way Antoninus “listened to anyone who could contribute to the public good.” When historians later credited Marcus for his ability to get the best out of flawed people, they were acknowledging Antoninus’s influence. Antoninus was known to keep a strict diet, so he could spend less time exercising and more time serving the people of Rome. Marcus would later talk about rising early, working hard and doing what his nature and job required. That work ethic wasn’t inborn-it was developed.

Antoninus was “what we would nowadays call a ‘people person’,” McLynn writes. “He felt at ease with other people and could put them at their ease.” Even towards those disingenuous social climbers, Marcus admired how he never got “fed up with them.” This was particularly important for Marcus who appears to have been naturally introverted-his earnest efforts to serve the common good, to be a friend to all?

Antoninus showed Marcus that fortune was fickle. He “carried a spartan attitude to money in his private life, taking frugal meals and reducing the pomp on state occasions to republican simplicity.” Frugality and industry was the only way to guarantee financial security.

When the plague hit Rome in 165 CE, Marcus knew what to do. He immediately assembled his team of Rome’s most brilliant minds. As McLynn explains, his “shrewd and careful personnel selection” is worthy of study by any person in any position of leadership.

Other emperors retreated to pleasure palaces or blamed enemies for issues during their reign. Antoninus had what all truly great leaders have-he was cool under pressure: “He never exhibited rudeness, lost control of himself, or turned violent. No one ever saw him sweat. Everything was to be approached logically and with due consideration, in a calm and orderly fashion but decisively, with no loose ends.” It’s what Marcus was constantly reminding himself (and what inspired our Daily Stoic Taming Your Temper course).

“He knew how to enjoy and abstain from things that most people find it hard to abstain from and all too easy to enjoy. These were all lessons Marcus carried with him his whole life. They guided the most powerful man on the planet through many trying times. So much so that he recounted them in his private journal late in life.

The Reign of Marcus Aurelius: Challenges and Achievements

Marcus Aurelius Worksheets Complete List of Included Worksheets Below is a list of all the worksheets included in this document. Marcus Aurelius Facts History BookSignificant EventsKnowing the EmperorFacts and Lie in a BoxCode BoxFather and SonUnscramble TimeThe Next EmperorQuote of the DayMy PerspectiveFrequently Asked Questions What is Marcus Aurelius best known for? Marcus Aurelius was the last of the Five Good Emperors of Rome. He was known for writing the book Meditations, which is considered one of the greatest works in world literature. Marcus Aurelius ruled from 161 to 180 CE. What was Marcus Aurelius’ greatest achievement? One of his most impressive accomplishments while Emperor was his ability to maintain the Roman Empire during difficult times, such as the Parthian War and Germanic Wars. He was also successful in working together with Lucius Verus, his adoptive brother, and co-Emperor. What did Marcus Aurelius do for fun? Marcus Annius Verus was born into a wealthy and influential family. He was a serious young man who liked to mix wrestling, boxing, and hunting. You can use these worksheets as-is, or edit them using Google Slides to make them more specific to your own student ability levels and curriculum standards. our lives are not made good or bad by our having or lacking them.

In 161 CE, Marcus succeeded to the throne and was the first emperor who appointed someone to serve as his co-ruler, his adopted brother, Lucius Aurelius Verus.

In his reign from 162-166 CE, he persecuted the upstart form of Christianity, which challenged the established order and refused to respect the national religion. Even though these persecutions were ultimately rejected as Christianity gained ground, at the time, they would have been seen as essential to maintaining order.

During Marcus’s rule, military conflicts arose, such as the battle with the Parthian empire, which they won in 165 CE. However, when the soldiers from the Parthian war arrived, they brought the Antonine plague (named after Marcus), which spread through the empire for years and killed about five million Roman citizens. This put the whole empire at risk of invasion.

Marcus Aurelius had reduced the size of his army along the extensive European frontier, which was approximately defined by the Rhine and the Danube rivers, to gather forces for the Eastern campaign. However, some of his local governors provoked the Germanic tribes, and they invaded the Danube River in the late 160s CE.

The Marcomanni of Bohemia broke their allegiance with Rome in 166 CE, which led to a far more significant Danube invasion. During 168 CE, the rebellion of the Marcomanni ended. In 169 CE, Lucius Verus died due to the plague, and Marcus became the sole emperor of Rome.

In 170 CE, Marcus Aurelius stayed at the Carnuntum during their war with Quadi. He fought on the front lines until the end of his conflicts with the Germanic tribes.

The Quadi and the Iazyges tribes formed an alliance that surrounded and outnumbered the emperor. The tactics and formations of the Romans were a success because, at the end of 173 CE, they won against the Quadi.

In 175 CE, Marcus Aurelius successfully imposed cruel peace conditions on both tribes. However, his authority was challenged by Avidius Cassius, who wanted to claim the throne, but he was killed by his own soldiers.

Before Marcus died, he made his son, Commodus, his co-emperor during 177 CE, and they fought together.

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